/Users/andrea/_magisterarbeit/korpus/clean/testkorpus/1/file_119.html NN ----------------------------------------- : The DT Influence NN of IN Multinational JJ Corporations NNS . SENT An DT International NP Political NP Economics NP Perspective NP by IN June NP Kaminski NP , , RN NN MSN NN Multinationals NNS now RB function VVP in IN a DT global JJ , , political JJ economy NN . SENT global JJ because IN borders NNS are VBP disappearing VVG between IN markets NNS , , political JJ because IN national JJ politics NNS and CC policies NNS still RB matter VVP . SENT Lorraine NP Eden NP , , 1994 CD , , page NN 2 CD Introduction NN Lowe NP 1992 CD described VVD the DT new JJ world NN order NN as IN a DT business NN world NN that WDT believed VVD in IN economics NNS , , instead RB of IN political JJ ideology NN . SENT In IN the DT 1980 CD s PP and CC 1990 CD s PP , , the DT new JJ theology NN has VHZ become VVN capitalism NN , , and CC multinational JJ corporations NNS are VBP the DT high JJ priests NNS of IN this DT new JJ order NN . SENT Many JJ multinational JJ corporations NNS MNCs NNS are VBP surprisingly RB larger JJR than IN most JJS of IN the DT nations NNS they PP do VVP business NN with IN . SENT Only RB eight CD nations NNS out RB of IN the DT world NN s VVZ 213 CD nations NNS , , report VV gross JJ domestic JJ products NNS GDP NP greater JJR than IN the DT assets NNS of IN the DT world NN s PP top VVP banks NNS . SENT Most JJS of IN these DT profits NNS are VBP produced VVN by IN MNCs NP . SENT The DT United NP States NPS leads VVZ the DT growth NN figures NNS produced VVN by IN these DT eight CD nations NNS . SENT In IN 1990 CD , , General NP Motors NPS , , the DT largest JJS multinational JJ corporation NN had VHD revenues NNS larger JJR than IN 89 CD . SENT 7 CD percent NN of IN all PDT the DT nations NNS on IN the DT globe NN . SENT Overall RB , , monopolistic JJ or CC oligopolistic JJ corporations NNS control VVP over IN 85 CD percent NN of IN world NN production NN and CC trade NN . SENT Lowe NP 1992 CD . SENT 7 CD described VVD a DT free JJ wheeling VVG global JJ business NN climate NN in IN which WDT big JJ business NN can MD operate VV almost RB at IN will NN . SENT In IN all DT countries NNS , , including VVG the DT United NP States NPS , , MNCs NNS have VHP become VVN increasingly RB influential JJ in IN setting VVG government NN policy NN , , at IN both DT federal JJ and CC state NN levels NNS . SENT Over IN time NN , , a DT reversal NN of IN roles NNS has VHZ occurred VVN between IN government NN and CC corporations NNS . SENT In IN business NN and CC economics NNS , , the DT role NN of IN the DT government NN has VHZ receded VVN into IN the DT background NN , , with IN a DT recognition NN that IN national JJ borders NNS are VBP actually RB a DT hindrance NN to TO economic JJ development NN . SENT MNCs NNS affect VVP the DT political JJ and CC legal JJ environment NN in IN their PP$ home NN country NN as RB well RB as IN the DT affiliate NN host NN nations NNS , , influencing VVG the DT laws NNS and CC agreements NNS governing VVG interactions NNS among IN countries NNS . SENT With IN the DT growth NN of IN the DT global JJ economy NN , , changes NNS and CC transitions NNS are VBP experienced VVN by IN all DT players NNS in IN the DT world NN political JJ economic JJ arena NN . SENT Far RB reaching VVG changes NNS are VBP everywhere RB in IN international JJ relations NNS , , domestic JJ politics NNS , , economics NNS , , and CC the DT corporate JJ milieu NN , , which WDT affects VVZ decisions NNS made VVN by IN policymakers NNS , , entrepreneurs NNS , , and CC employees NNS in IN developed JJ and CC developing VVG countries NNS alike RB . SENT Every DT country NN has VHZ made VVN policy NN changes NNS to TO accommodate VV MNCs NP , , in IN the DT role NN as IN source NN or CC host NN country NN . SENT The DT United NP States NPS has VHZ long RB been VBN recognized VVN as IN the DT pre NP eminent JJ land NN of IN MNCs NP , , as RB well RB as IN one CD of IN the DT prime JJ source NN countries NNS in IN the DT global JJ political JJ economic JJ arena NN Pugel NP , , 1985 CD . SENT Dunning NP 1985 CD attributed VVD distinctive JJ qualities NNS evident JJ in IN MNC NP which WDT differ VVP from IN traditional JJ , , uninational JJ companies NNS . SENT MNCs NNS are VBP usually RB highly RB productive JJ and CC profitable JJ , , prone JJ to TO engage VV in IN international JJ transactions NNS , , and CC tend VVP to TO be VB both DT vertically RB and CC horizontally RB integrated VVN . SENT MNCs NNS help VVP to TO raise VV technical JJ and CC sectoral JJ efficiency NN through IN corporate JJ efficiency NN , , and CC linkages NNS with IN suppliers NNS , , customers NNS , , and CC competitors NNS around IN the DT globe NN . SENT Dunning NP 1985 NP also RB points VVZ out RP that IN the DT contribution NN that IN a DT MNC NP makes VVZ to TO the DT economic JJ milieu NN depends VVZ significantly RB on IN government NN policies NNS . SENT MNCs NNS are VBP an DT integrating VVG force NN in IN the DT world NN economy NN , , but CC how WRB useful JJ this DT integration NN is VBZ to TO developing VVG countries NNS depends VVZ on IN the DT policies NNS set VVN by IN governments NNS , , as RB well RB as IN the DT trade NN agreements NNS in IN place NN . SENT Government NN policies NNS , , whether IN general JJ or CC specific JJ to TO MNCs NP , , affect VVP the DT contribution NN that IN MNCs NP can MD make VV to TO the DT economic JJ structure NN of IN a DT nation NN and CC any DT restructuring NN that WDT follows VVZ . SENT Dunning NP hypothesized VVN that IN the DT effect NN government NN policies NNS have VHP on IN the DT international JJ division NN of IN labor NN depended VVD on IN whether IN they PP were VBD made VVN with IN a DT continentalist NN perspective NN or CC a DT nationalist JJ one NN . SENT He PP believed VVD that IN if IN governments NNS were VBD to TO foster VV the DT most RBS economic JJ benefits NNS possible JJ from IN MNCs NP , , they PP should MD intervene VV only RB in IN the DT flow NN of IN goods NNS and CC resources NNS across IN exchanges NNS to TO counteract VV market NN distortions NNS and CC monopolies NNS . SENT The DT rest NN of IN the DT decision NN making NN that WDT goes VVZ along RP with IN running VVG a DT massive JJ corporation NN should MD be VB left VVN to TO the DT experts NNS the DT MNC NP executives NNS . SENT It PP has VHZ become VVN very RB difficult JJ for IN governments NNS to TO direct VV and CC control VV MNCs NP , , even RB in IN America NP . SENT Control NN over IN money NN , , trade NN routes NNS , , goods NNS and CC services NNS afford VVP MNCs NP great JJ power NN in IN the DT international JJ global JJ economy NN . SENT MNCs NNS have VHP a DT profound JJ international JJ presence NN , , commanding JJ deference NN and CC attention NN wherever WRB they PP do VVP business NN . SENT Lowe NP 1992 CD identified VVD the DT one CD distinctive JJ characteristic NN that WDT separates VVZ MNCs NNS from IN other JJ large JJ businesses NNS . SENT MNCs NNS seriously RB affect VVP people NNS s PP personal JJ lives NNS as RB well RB as IN public JJ policy NN . SENT They PP are VBP the DT aristrocrats NNS of IN the DT business NN arena NN . SENT In IN recent JJ years NNS , , their PP$ chief JJ executives NNS have VHP stood VVN on IN equal JJ ground NN with IN presidents NNS , , prime JJ ministers NNS , , and CC statesmen NNS in IN determining VVG the DT world NN economy NN and CC how WRB it PP will MD be VB run VVN . SENT International JJ treaties NNS and CC laws NNS play VVP an DT important JJ role NN in IN the DT conduct NN of IN global JJ marketing NN . SENT Although IN no DT enforceable JJ body NN of IN international JJ law NN exists VVZ , , certain JJ treaties NNS and CC agreements NNS respected VVN by IN many JJ countries NNS profoundly RB influence VVP international JJ business NN operations NNS . SENT With IN the DT advent NN of IN the DT NAFTA NP and CC European NP Commission NP EC NP , , as RB well RB as IN alliances NNS with IN Pacific NP Rim NP nations NNS , , the DT political JJ economic JJ structures NNS of IN nations NNS have VHP all RB experienced VVN transitional JJ processes NNS . SENT New JJ constitutional JJ and CC treaty NN agreements NNS currently RB institutionalize VV the DT privledges NNS of IN capital NN on IN a DT global JJ scale NN which WDT undermines VVZ the DT sovereignty NN and CC political JJ autonomy NN of IN nation NN states NNS , , as RB well RB as IN macro NN associations NNS , , such JJ as IN the DT EC NP . SENT From IN this DT vantage NN point NN , , the DT Third NP World NP developing VVG countries NNS have VHP become VVN fragmented JJ , , divided VVN , , and CC weakened VVD , , in IN an DT economic JJ way NN . SENT Politically RB and CC socially RB , , these DT countries NNS have VHP always RB been VBN diverse JJ and CC culturally RB distinct JJ . SENT US PP policing VVG and CC survelliance NN power NN is VBZ linked VVN , , albeit IN indirectly RB , , to TO social JJ forces NNS which WDT serve VVP to TO sustain VV internally RB neo JJR liberal JJ policies NNS in IN the DT Third NP World NP , , Hettne NP et CC al NP , , 1995 CD . SENT 72 CD . SENT Affluent JJ , , often RB Western JJ educated VVN urban JJ dwellers NNS in IN the DT Third NP World NP have VHP been VBN the DT primary JJ recipients NNS of IN the DT subsidies NNS and CC World NP Bank NP loans NNS . SENT In IN a DT large JJ part NN , , the DT new JJ global JJ financial JJ system NN operates VVZ systematically RB in IN favor NN of IN financial JJ interests NNS , , for IN the DT benefit NN of IN a DT very RB small JJ portion NN of IN the DT world NN s PP population NN . SENT In IN recent JJ years NNS , , a DT new JJ constitutionalism NN has VHZ established VVN a DT process NN where WRB government NN policies NNS are VBP increasingly RB accountable JJ to TO national JJ and CC international JJ capital NN and CC market NN forces NNS exercised VVN by IN finance NN markets NNS . SENT Credibility NN with IN financial JJ markets NNS is VBZ , , for IN governments NNS , , becoming VVG more RBR important JJ than IN credibility NN with IN voters NNS , , Hettne NP et CC al NP , , 1995 CD . SENT 79 CD . SENT A DT move NN to TO free VV monetary JJ control NN and CC policy NN making VVG from IN direct JJ political JJ control NN and CC to TO target VV for IN long JJ term NN price NN stability NN has VHZ occurred VVN on IN a DT global JJ scale NN , , including VVG in IN the DT USA NP . SENT As IN well RB , , a DT redefinition NN of IN the DT role NN and CC purpose NN of IN government NN within IN the DT emerging VVG new JJ world NN order NN has VHZ been VBN common JJ . SENT More JJR and CC more JJR , , finance NN has VHZ become VVN the DT principal JJ medium NN of IN social JJ exchange NN . SENT Social JJ relations NNS have VHP been VBN conditioned VVN by IN market NN forces NNS and CC practices NNS . SENT Capitalistic JJ practices NNS increasingly RB pervade VV activities NNS of IN everyday JJ life NN . SENT leisure NN , , play VV , , in IN the DT process NN of IN consumption NN and CC so RB on IN . SENT Hettne NP , , Cox NP , , Gill NP , , Van NP der NP Piji NP , , Rosenau NP Sakamoto NP 1995 CD described VVD the DT current JJ global JJ political JJ economic JJ situation NN as IN a DT time NN of IN transformation NN or CC being NN in IN the DT middle NN of IN a DT transition NN stage NN . SENT The DT world NN economy NN has VHZ become VVN internationalized VVN through IN increases NNS in IN world NN trade NN and CC the DT spread NN of IN MNCs NP . SENT These DT changes NNS deeply RB affect VVP the DT governments NNS ability NN to TO control VV national JJ interest NN rates NNS and CC to TO set VV contemporary JJ fiscal JJ policy NN Lowe NP , , 1992 CD . SENT MNCs NNS expand VVP beyond IN domestic JJ borders NNS anticipating VVG the DT growth NN opportunities NNS provided VVN by IN foreign JJ markets NNS . SENT For IN example NN , , Mexico NP s PP population NN is VBZ rising VVG at IN almost RB twice RB the DT rate NN of IN the DT US NP population NN . SENT Many JJ other JJ developing JJ countries NNS offer VVP similar JJ demographics NNS . SENT As IN the DT population NN grows VVZ , , purchasing VVG usually RB grows VVZ in IN the DT developing VVG nations NNS . SENT MNCs NNS go VVP abroad RB for IN other JJ reasons NNS as IN well RB . SENT Lower JJR wages NNS , , easier JJR union NN directives NNS , , governments NNS with IN less JJR stringent JJ environmental JJ enforcement NN , , lower JJR tax NN rates NNS , , and CC such JJ , , are VBP offered VVN by IN countries NNS anxious JJ to TO expand VV their PP$ industrial JJ front NN . SENT Most RBS developing JJ countries NNS now RB welcome VVP new JJ businesses NNS , , especially RB MNCs NP , , because IN of IN the DT increased JJ employment NN opportunities NNS , , new JJ technologies NNS , , and CC additional JJ tax NN revenue NN . SENT Almost RB half NN of IN the DT top JJ 25 CD MNCs NNS in IN the DT world NN are VBP American JJ based VVN , , ranging VVG from IN Exxon NP to TO AT IN T NN to TO Coca NP Cola NP . SENT Most JJS of IN the DT top JJ MNCs NNS operate VVP in IN industries NNS that WDT are VBP fundamental JJ to TO people NNS s PP lives VVZ relevant JJ to TO their PP$ comfort NN , , safety NN , , or CC well RB being JJ . SENT Food NP , , medicine NN , , transportation NN and CC fuel NN , , weapons NNS , , communications NNS , , and CC so RB on IN are VBP all RB under IN the DT control NN , , for IN the DT most JJS part NN , , of IN a DT small JJ number NN of IN very RB powerful JJ and CC influential JJ MNCs NNS . SENT Leaders NNS of IN these DT corporations NNS make VVP daily JJ choices NNS and CC decisions NNS which WDT affect VVP the DT world NN s PP population NN in IN profound JJ ways NNS , , choices NNS critical JJ to TO international JJ survival NN , , economic JJ security NN , , and CC global JJ prosperity NN . SENT Unlike IN government NN officials NNS , , whose WP$ private JJ and CC public JJ lives NNS are VBP regularly RB opened VVN to TO public JJ scrutiny NN , , leaders NNS of IN the DT MNCs NP have VHP enjoyed VVN an DT alarming JJ degree NN of IN privacy NN and CC anonymity NN . SENT The DT behavior NN of IN MNCs NP has VHZ been VBN deeply RB influenced VVN by IN the DT government NN and CC economy NN of IN its PP$ country NN of IN source NN . SENT Nationality NN does VVZ shape VV the DT bundle NN of IN technological JJ , , financial JJ , , and CC managerial JJ resources NNS that IN a DT headquarters NN unit NN acquires VVZ in IN response NN to TO earlier JJR challenges NNS , , thereby RB influencing VVG its PP$ strategy NN at IN later JJR stages NNS , , Vernon NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 27 CD . SENT Since IN the DT 1980 CD s PP when WRB the DT United NP States NP first RB began VVD to TO be VB a DT major JJ host NN country NN for IN foreign JJ investments NNS , , MNCs NNS have VHP been VBN looked VVN at IN differently RB through IN American JJ government NN eyes NNS . SENT Cave NP theorized VVD that IN a DT policy NN which WDT benefitted VVD the DT nation NN s PP MNCs NP at IN the DT expense NN of IN foreigners NNS would MD win VV favor NN with IN the DT average JJ voter NN . SENT Source NN countries NNS will MD also RB approve VV public JJ measures NNS to TO assist VV national JJ MNCs NNS in IN maximizing VVG their PP$ rents NNS from IN foreign JJ markets NNS , , subject JJ to TO conditions NNS relating VVG to TO the DT costs NNS of IN these DT policies NNS and CC how WRB they PP are VBP financed VVN , , Caves NP , , 1996 CD . SENT 255 CD . SENT The DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT has VHZ sometimes RB used VVN their PP$ MNCs NNS to TO influence VV allocations NNS in IN foreign JJ countries NNS , , usually RB in IN support NN of IN objectives NNS of IN foreign JJ policies NNS . SENT Caves NP explains VVZ that IN the DT sovereignty NN at IN bay NN theory NN is VBZ unfounded JJ , , since IN in IN the DT past NN , , MNCs NP had VHD not RB totally RB escaped VVD the DT regulatory JJ power NN of IN governments NNS , , whether IN source NN or CC host NN . SENT In IN recent JJ years NNS , , American NP MNCs NP have VHP , , however RB , , achieved VVD a DT level NN of IN cooperation NN with IN their PP$ source NN and CC host NN countries NNS , , for IN a DT variety NN of IN reasons NNS . SENT The DT 1990 CD s PP has VHZ brought VVN governments NNS to TO the DT realization NN that IN they PP need VVP to TO promote VV the DT restructuring NN of IN their PP$ own JJ resources NNS and CC institutions NNS to TO meet VV the DT global JJ marketplace NN challenge NN . SENT Fostering VVG competitiveness NN in IN international JJ markets NNS has VHZ superceded VVD concerns NNS about IN the DT erosion NN of IN national JJ social JJ norms NNS and CC cultures NNS in IN many JJ countries NNS . SENT This DT , , despite IN the DT fact NN that IN MNCs NP may MD be VB the DT purveyors NNS of IN resources NNS , , values NNS , , and CC behavioral JJ patterns NNS which WDT negatively RB affect VVP a DT nation NN s PP citizens NNS . SENT Governments NNS have VHP begun VVN to TO develop VV a DT holistic JJ approach NN to TO policy NN setting NN , , which WDT affects VVZ the DT competitiveness NN of IN their PP$ resources NNS . SENT Further JJR evolution NN of IN world NN financial JJ markets NNS will MD continue VV to TO be VB highly RB sensitive JJ to TO policy NN developments NNS Smith NP Walter NP , , 1992 CD . SENT How WRB much RB of IN a DT role NN do VVP American JJ financial JJ services NNS have VHP in IN influencing VVG government NN policy NN decisions NNS regarding VVG the DT promotion NN of IN financial JJ market NN liberalization NN in IN developing VVG countries NNS . SENT Apparently RB a DT major JJ one CD . SENT Multinational JJ corporations NNS and CC their PP$ affiliate NN financial JJ institutions NNS obviously RB have VHP a DT unique JJ and CC strong JJ influence NN on IN the DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT government's JJ international JJ policy NN development NN , , and CC on IN the DT governments NNS of IN host NN countries NNS , , which WDT promotes VVZ financial JJ economic JJ and CC political JJ liberalization NN in IN developing VVG countries NNS . SENT Definition NN of IN Terms NNS Affiliate NN A DT company NN owned VVN or CC controlled VVN by IN another DT corporation NN , , often RB in IN a DT foreign JJ country NN , , through IN ownership NN of IN ten CD per IN cent NN or CC more JJR of IN outstanding JJ voting NN stock NN . SENT Conglomerate NN A DT business NN organization NN generally RB consisting VVG of IN a DT holding NN company NN and CC group NN of IN subsidiaries NNS engaged VVN in IN dissimilar JJ activities NNS . SENT Usually RB , , a DT conglomerate NN expands VVZ through IN mergers NNS or CC takeovers NNS of IN other JJ independent JJ companies NNS . SENT Developed JJ Countries NNS These DT countries NNS enjoy VVP well RB developed VVN infrastructures NNS , , high JJ per IN capita NN income NN , , and CC large JJ scale NN industrial JJ diversification NN . SENT They PP are VBP also RB characterized VVN by IN low JJ rates NNS of IN population NN and CC economic JJ growth NN , , as RB well RB as IN shifts NNS in IN emphasis NN from IN manufacturing VVG to TO service NN industries NNS , , such JJ as IN transportation NN , , communication NN , , and CC information NN systems NNS . SENT Early JJ Developing VVG Countries NPS Countries NPS who WP have VHP begun VVN initial JJ development NN of IN an DT infrastructure NN and CC have VHP infant JJ industries NNS , , usually RB mining NN and CC selected JJ cottage NN manufacturers NNS . SENT Target VV economic JJ sectors NNS may MD enjoy VV high JJ growth NN rates NNS even RB though IN the DT per FW capita NN income NN is VBZ modest JJ . SENT Export NP Processing NP Zone NP or CC Free NP Trade NP Zone NP A NP physically RB fenced VVD in IN industrial JJ estate NN developed VVN by IN host NN country NN governments NNS to TO facilitate VV trade NN and CC manufacturing NN by IN foreign JJ as RB well RB as IN domestic JJ investors NNS , , primarily RB for IN exports NNS . SENT Foreign NP Direct NP Investment NP FDI NP The DT primary JJ measure NN of IN cross NN border NN investment NN by IN multinational JJ corporations NNS . SENT The DT FDI NP involves VVZ giving VVG managerial JJ controlling JJ power NN to TO the DT foreign JJ investor NN in IN a DT joint JJ venture NN , , for IN example NN . SENT International NP Political NP Economics NP a DT social JJ science NN which WDT focuses VVZ on IN the DT way NN that IN the DT world NN economy NN is VBZ organized VVN politically RB , , and CC the DT connection NN between IN politics NNS and CC economy NN in IN international JJ relations NNS Hettne NP , , Cox NP , , Gill NP , , Van NP der NP Piji NP , , Rosenau NP , , Sakamoto NP , , 1995 CD . SENT Concerned VVN with IN the DT historically RB constituted VVD frameworks NNS or CC structures NNS within IN which WDT international JJ political JJ and CC economic JJ activities NNS take VVP place NN . SENT Less RBR Developed JJ Countries NPS Countries NPS with IN primarily RB agrarian JJ and CC or CC extractive JJ economies NNS . SENT High JJ birth NN rates NNS , , and CC limited JJ infrastructures NNS account VVP for IN the DT low NN per IN capita NN income NN less RBR than IN approximately RB 410 CD US NP dollars NNS per IN year NN . SENT Electrification NN is VBZ limited VVN to TO the DT main JJ population NN area NN . SENT Includes VVZ China NP , , India NP , , and CC most JJS of IN Africa NP . SENT License NN Agreement NN A DT contract NN made VVN by IN a DT multinational JJ corporation NN with IN a DT subsidiary NN or CC local JJ company NN for IN the DT use NN of IN a DT brand NN name NN , , trademark NN , , patent NN , , or CC copyright NN of IN a DT product NN for IN a DT specified JJ duration NN of IN time NN . SENT Payment NN may MD be VB in IN the DT form NN of IN a DT fee NN , , sales NNS percentage NN , , or CC royalty NN . SENT Major JJ Developing VVG Debtor JJ Nations NPS Countries NNS that WDT have VHP foreign JJ debts NNS to TO banks NNS or CC official NN institutions NNS such JJ as IN the DT IMF NP and CC World NP Bank NP . SENT Includes VVZ Argentina NP , , Brazil NP , , Chile NP , , Colombia NP , , Egypt NP , , Korea NP , , Peru NP , , Philippines NP , , Poland NP , , Russia NP , , and CC Venezuela NP . SENT Merger NN An DT amalgamation NN where WRB two CD independent JJ corporations NNS agree VVP to TO join VV together RB their PP$ equity NN and CC capital NN together RB to TO form VV a DT new JJ single JJ company NN . SENT In IN a DT takeover NN , , one CD corporation NN acquires VVZ control NN of IN another DT company NN without IN mutual JJ agreement NN . SENT Multinational JJ Corporations NP MNCs NP an DT enterprise NN conglomerate NN consisting VVG of IN a DT parent NN core NN organization NN located VVN in IN the DT source NN country NN , , with IN affiliate NN units NNS dispersed VVD throughout IN other JJ host NN nations NNS . SENT All DT sectors NNS draw VVP on IN a DT common JJ organizational JJ network NN with IN common JJ technical JJ , , financial JJ , , and CC human JJ resources NNS . SENT Portfolio NP Investment NP This DT is VBZ investment NN which WDT goes VVZ into IN the DT financial JJ sector NN in IN the DT form NN of IN treasury NN bonds NNS and CC notes NNS , , stocks NNS , , money NN market NN placements NNS , , and CC bank NN deposits NNS . SENT Portfolio NN investment NN involves VVZ neither DT control NN of IN operations NNS nor CC ownership NN of IN physical JJ assets NNS . SENT Portfolios NNS may MD include VV equity NN , , but CC portfolio NN investors NNS usually RB do VVP not RB get VV involved VVN in IN operations NNS . SENT Portfolio NN investment NN is VBZ typically RB of IN a DT more RBR speculative JJ nature NN , , responding VVG quickly RB to TO higher JJR returns NNS offered VVN elsewhere RB as IN well RB as RB to TO higher JJR risks NNS in IN the DT host NN economy NN . SENT Service NP Contract NP An DT agreement NN between IN a DT multinational JJ corporation NN and CC a DT domestic JJ company NN or CC subsidiary NN where WRB the DT former JJ provides VVZ the DT recipient NN with IN assistance NN such JJ as IN technical JJ services NNS , , procurement NN services NNS , , and CC proprietary JJ technology NN . SENT Subcontracting VVG Offshore NP Assembly NP A DT technique NN used VVN by IN multinational JJ corporations NNS where WRB the DT manufacture NN of IN one CD part NN of IN a DT product NN made VVN in IN a DT country NN is VBZ subcontracted VVN to TO another DT country NN to TO take VV advantage NN of IN cheaper JJR labor NN . SENT The DT raw JJ materials NNS are VBP imported VVN from IN the DT parent NN company NN abroad RB and CC processed VVN by IN a DT local JJ subcontractor NN . SENT The DT semi NN finished VVD good NN is VBZ exported VVN back RB to TO the DT parent NN corporation NN . SENT Subsidiary NN A DT company NN legally RB owned VVN and CC controlled VVN by IN another DT corporation NN because IN a DT majority NN of IN its PP$ shares NNS are VBP held VVN by IN the DT latter NN . SENT The DT corporation NN owning VVG a DT majority NN interest NN is VBZ foreign JJ , , the DT company NN where WRB the DT interest NN is VBZ held VVN will MD be VB a DT foreign JJ subsidiary NN . SENT Overview NN of IN Multinational JJ Corporations NNS and CC their PP$ Development NP Vernon NP 1994 CD described VVD common JJ reasons NNS that IN a DT corporation NN could MD have VH for IN deciding VVG to TO become VV multinational JJ in IN organization NN . SENT Some DT MNC NP foreign JJ units NNS are VBP established VVN based VVN on IN least JJS cost NN calculations NNS to TO minimize VV the DT delivered VVN cost NN of IN a DT product NN or CC service NN to TO a DT given VVN market NN or CC to TO reduce VV the DT cost NN of IN providing VVG quality NN after IN sale NN service NN in IN that DT market NN . SENT The DT subsidiary NN foreign JJ unit NN might MD be VB strategically RB located VVN to TO take VV advantage NN of IN low JJ cost NN inputs NNS such JJ as IN labor NN and CC raw JJ materials NNS , , or CC other JJ resources NNS . SENT Some DT units NNS are VBP located VVN on IN foreign JJ soil NN to TO prevent VV governments NNS from IN blocking VVG imports NNS to TO a DT specific JJ market NN , , or CC to TO protect VV the DT corporation NN from IN the DT actions NNS of IN competitor NN companies NNS . SENT Multinational JJ corporations NNS pose VVP both DT short JJ term NN and CC long JJ term NN consequences NNS for IN economic JJ growth NN . SENT Short JJ term NN consequences NNS are VBP measured VVN by IN MNC NP investment NN while IN long JJ term NN ones NNS by IN MNC NP penetration NN Bornschier NP , , 1984 CD . SENT MNC NP investment NN has VHZ the DT short JJ term NN effect NN of IN increasing VVG the DT economic JJ growth NN rate NN . SENT The DT higher JJR the DT cumulated VVN investment NN of IN MNCs NP in IN relation NN to TO the DT total JJ stock NN of IN capital NN and CC population NN , , that WDT is VBZ to TO say VV the DT greater JJR MNC NP penetration NN , , as IN a DT structural JJ feature NN of IN the DT host NN countries NNS , , the DT lower JJR the DT subsequent JJ growth NN rate NN of IN per IN capita NN income NN as RB well RB as IN total JJ income NN , , Bornschier NP , , 1984 CD . SENT 31 CD . SENT Fresh JJ investments NNS have VHP short JJ term NN positive JJ consequences NNS , , while IN MNC NP penetration NN has VHZ long JJ term NN negative JJ ones NNS . SENT The DT lowering VVG of IN the DT economic JJ growth NN rate NN through IN high JJ MNC NP penetration NN has VHZ been VBN critical JJ for IN less RBR developed VVN countries NNS LDCs NP . SENT MNC NP penetration NN is VBZ also RB linked VVN with IN income NN inequality NN for IN LDCs NP . SENT Often RB policies NNS and CC priorities NNS in IN public JJ expenditure NN by IN governments NNS favor VVP the DT dominant JJ power NN players NNS , , including VVG American NP MNCs NP , , especially RB in IN LDCs NP . SENT The DT short JJ term NN , , growth NN promoting VVG effects NNS of IN MNC NP investment NN is VBZ also RB significant JJ for IN LDCs NP . SENT In IN the DT three CD decades NNS between IN 1950 CD and CC 1980 CD , , most JJS national JJ policy NN makers NNS regarded VVN inward RB and CC outward RB direct JJ investment NN as IN two CD separate JJ and CC unrelated JJ economic JJ phenomena NNS . SENT Government NN actions NNS towards IN MNCs NP were VBD viewed VVN as IN two CD fold VVP . SENT Policies NNS were VBD set VVN that IN either CC a DT determined VVD the DT effects NNS on IN the DT behavior NN of IN foreign JJ direct JJ investors NNS or CC b LS those DT intended VVN to TO affect VV the DT general JJ economic JJ situation NN of IN the DT nation NN in IN question NN . SENT Development NN modification NN , , and CC various JJ social JJ policies NNS were VBD examples NNS . SENT Host NN governments NNS tended VVD to TO take VV action NN to TO maximize VV the DT benefits NNS and CC curtail VV the DT costs NNS of IN inward RB direct JJ investment NN . SENT If IN benefits NNS were VBD lower JJR than IN expected VVN , , the DT MNC NP was VBD viewed VVN as IN inefficient JJ or CC anti JJ competitive JJ . SENT Government NN policies NNS and CC a DT flawed JJ economic JJ system NN were VBD not RB considered VVN as IN cause NN or CC contributing VVG factors NNS in IN the DT reduced JJ benefits NNS . SENT Only JJ countries NNS like IN Japan NP , , and CC later JJR Korea NP had VHD governments NNS who WP sought VVD to TO include VV inward RB investment NN in IN their PP$ broad JJ national JJ economic JJ planning NN Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 66 CD . SENT Over IN the DT past JJ three CD decades NNS , , laws NNS , , regulations NNS , , and CC policies NNS towards IN MNCs NP have VHP been VBN modified VVN frequently RB , , on IN a DT global JJ scale NN . SENT Governments NNS have VHP gradually RB learned VVN to TO modify VV and CC refine VV their PP$ inward RB investment NN policies NNS , , taking VVG into IN account NN environmental JJ conditions NNS , , their PP$ own JJ inner JJ workings NNS , , and CC technological JJ capacities NNS , , as RB well RB as IN the DT new JJ opportunities NNS that WDT were VBD opening VVG to TO MNCs NP . SENT The DT liberation NN and CC deregulation NN of IN many JJ markets NNS were VBD the DT result NN beginning NN in IN the DT mid JJ 1970 CD s PP . SENT Coupled VVN with IN the DT rapid JJ growth NN of IN some DT industralizing VVG economies NNS , , especially RB East NP Asia NP , , these DT activities NNS had VHD three CD specific JJ results NNS . SENT Number NN one NN , , governments NNS began VVD to TO avoid VV practices NNS and CC policies NNS which WDT promoted VVD structural JJ market NN failure NN . SENT Secondly RB , , the DT bargaining NN power NN of IN MNCs NP with IN host NN governments NNS grew VVD . SENT Most RBS importantly RB , , global JJ technological JJ advances NNS forced VVD governments NNS to TO reevaluate VV their PP$ attitudes NNS towards IN the DT internationalism NN of IN value NN added VVD activities NNS , , Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 68 CD . SENT Outward RB direct JJ investment NN was VBD included VVN in IN the DT policies NNS of IN countries NNS like IN the DT US NP , , the DT United NP Kingdom NP , , and CC Japan NP during IN this DT era NN . SENT There EX tended VVN to TO be VB bias NN against IN outward RB investments NNS , , which WDT affected VVD tax NN policies NNS for IN MNCs NP . SENT Rarely RB , , outside IN the DT resource NN based VVN sectors NNS , , was VBD outbound JJ investment NN perceived VVN to TO be VB complementary JJ to TO domestic JJ investment NN , , or CC as IN part NN and CC parcel NN of IN a DT restructuring NN of IN domestic JJ resources NNS , , Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 69 CD . SENT Any DT tax NN advantages NNS on IN income NN earned VVN from IN foreign JJ investment NN tended VVN to TO be VB neutralized VVN by IN government NN policies NNS . SENT Since IN the DT 1980 CD s PP the DT world NN has VHZ witnessed VVN the DT globalization NN of IN the DT world NN economy NN . SENT The DT merits NNS of IN a DT market NN economy NN have VHP become VVN significant JJ to TO home NN governments NNS . SENT Further JJR advances NNS in IN information NN and CC communications NNS technology NN has VHZ deeply RB affected VVN the DT location NN and CC organization NN of IN economic JJ activity NN around IN the DT globe NN . SENT Most RBS modern JJ day NN economies NNS are VBP now RB both CC outward RB and CC inward RB direct JJ investors NNS . SENT National JJ governments NNS have VHP become VVN the DT enablers NNS and CC sustainers NNS of IN wealth NN creating VVG activities NNS , , Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 70 CD . SENT Governments NNS now RB examine VVP how WRB they PP can MD facilitate VV the DT supply NN capabilities NNS of IN their PP$ own JJ MNCs NNS , , by IN lowering VVG transaction NN related JJ barriers NNS , , and CC by IN supporting VVG the DT structural JJ deployment NN of IN assets NNS within IN their PP$ borders NNS . SENT Still RB , , until IN the DT 1990 CD s PP , , little JJ effort NN had VHD been VBN made VVN for IN governments NNS to TO set VV conditions NNS for IN corporations NNS and CC markets NNS to TO operate VV efficiently RB , , upgrade VV their PP$ resources NNS and CC capabilities NNS , , or CC restructure VV production NN . SENT Such JJ considerations NNS would MD cause VV inward RB and CC outward RB investment NN to TO become VV complementary JJ to TO domestic JJ investment NN . SENT Policy NN redirection NN reflected VVD a DT broad JJ realization NN that IN global JJ economic JJ forces NNS must MD be VB accommodated VVN , , to TO boost VV national JJ and CC global JJ economies NNS . SENT International NP Policy NP Makers NPS and CC Trade NP Policy NP Formation NN Kudrle NP 1994 CD identified VVD three CD historic JJ foreign JJ economic JJ policy NN goals NNS . SENT prosperity NN , , autonomy NN , , and CC security NN . SENT Kudrle NP pointed VVD out RP that DT national JJ security NN reasons NNS were VBD mostly RB unfounded JJ in IN both DT analytic JJ and CC empirical JJ political JJ economic JJ research NN . SENT Policy NN development NN can MD be VB unilateral JJ , , multilateral JJ , , plurilateral JJ , , or CC bilateral JJ Kudrle NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Unilateral JJ liberalization NN has VHZ been VBN historically RB common JJ . SENT Significant JJ IFDI NP sectoral JJ liberalization NN will MD come VV largely RB from IN agreements NNS such JJ as IN the DT North NP American NP Free NP Trade NP Agreement NP NAFTA NP . SENT The DT opening NN of IN currently RB restricted VVN sectors NNS would MD catalyze VV further RBR major JJ liberalization NN . SENT Bargaining NN power NN and CC special JJ interests NNS , , not RB the DT national JJ welfare NN , , appear VVP to TO underlie VV most JJS sectoral JJ protection NN , , Kudrle NP , , 1994 CD , , page NN 165 CD . SENT Bornschier NP 1987 CD described VVD a DT theoretical JJ model NN for IN examining VVG economic JJ policies NNS related VVN to TO MNC NP control NN . SENT An DT intervention NN dimension NN continuum NN was VBD outlined VVN with IN liberalism NN and CC interventionism NN as IN the DT extreme JJ poles NNS . SENT This DT was VBD coupled VVN with IN a DT restriction NN dimension NN continuum NN with IN promotion NN restriction NN poles NNS . SENT The DT intervention NN dimension NN measured VVD the DT quantitative JJ effect NN of IN state NN intervention NN in IN the DT economy NN and CC the DT corporate JJ sphere NN , , while IN the DT restriction NN dimension NN described VVD the DT qualitative JJ aspects NNS of IN whether IN policies NNS were VBD supportive JJ or CC non JJ supportive JJ toward IN MNC NP activity NN . SENT The DT intervention NN dimension NN included VVD categories NNS of IN policy NN distinction NN , , including VVG a DT promoting VVG interventionism NN , , b LS non JJ specific JJ interventionism NN , , c LS stop NN and CC go VV interventionism NN , , and CC d LS restrictive JJ interventionism NN . SENT Bornschier NP noted VVD that DT stop NN and CC go VV interventionism NN tactics NNS had VHD become VVN common JJ in IN many JJ national JJ policies NNS . SENT It PP consisted VVD of IN a DT contradictory JJ combination NN of IN restrictive JJ measures NNS against IN MNCs NP including VVG interventions NNS with IN regard NN to TO corporate JJ property NN rights NNS and CC promotion NN in IN the DT form NN of IN incentives NNS for IN fresh JJ investment NN by IN MNC NP . SENT Categorical JJ points NNS along IN the DT restriction NN continuum NN included VVD policies NNS that IN a DT promote VVP liberalism NN , , b LS exert VV laissez NP faire NP liberalism NN , , c LS support NN stop VV and CC go VV liberalism NN , , and CC d LS offer NN only RB restrictive JJ liberalism NN . SENT As IN a DT rule NN , , the DT lower JJR the DT level NN of IN development NN inherent JJ in IN a DT MNC NP venture NN , , the DT likelihood NN that IN economic JJ policy NN would MD be VB interventionist JJ and CC restrictive JJ . SENT If IN a DT MNC NP venture NN was VBD important JJ in IN another DT aspect NN of IN development NN , , such JJ as IN educational JJ enrollments NNS , , economic JJ policies NNS tended VVN to TO be VB less RBR interventionist JJ and CC restrictive JJ of IN MNC NP activity NN . SENT Hettne NP et NP al NP , , 1995 CD described VVD a DT double JJ movement NN approach NN to TO the DT development NN of IN capitalism NN in IN the DT nineteenth JJ and CC most RBS of IN the DT twentieth JJ centuries NNS . SENT Capitalism NN , , the DT mainstay JJ economic JJ model NN used VVN by IN the DT United NP States NPS , , began VVD with IN the DT heady JJ notion NN of IN creating VVG an DT utopian JJ , , self NN regulating NN market NN . SENT Movement NN was VBD made VVN to TO keep VV the DT economic JJ machine NN independent JJ from IN the DT rest NN of IN societal JJ structure NN to TO allow VV the DT market NN to TO operate VV without IN social JJ or CC political JJ constraint NN . SENT The DT goal NN was VBD to TO make VV the DT economical JJ sphere NN a DT dominant JJ and CC unrestricted JJ power NN in IN American JJ society NN . SENT Yet RB , , social JJ and CC political JJ constrictions NNS did VVD develop VV , , and CC legislation NN , , insurance NN , , and CC the DT institution NN of IN industrial JJ relations NNS emerged VVD to TO produce VV a DT welfare NN state NN framework NN in IN the DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT economy NN . SENT Competition NN Policies NNS The DT 1990 CD s PP brought VVD a DT reversed JJ view NN of IN economics NNS , , both CC on IN the DT domestic JJ home NN front NN and CC in IN the DT international JJ arena NN . SENT As IN Hettne NP et NP al NP , , 1995 CD . SENT 39 CD described VVD , , The DT key JJ criterion NN today NN is VBZ competitiveness NN . SENT and CC derived VVN from IN that WDT are VBP universal JJ imperatives NNS of IN deregulation NN , , privatization NN , , and CC the DT restriction NN of IN the DT public JJ intervention NN in IN economic JJ processes NNS . SENT Rather RB than IN serving VVG as IN a DT buffer NN between IN external JJ economic JJ forces NNS and CC the DT domestic JJ economy NN , , the DT political JJ forces NNS are VBP now RB agents NNS for IN adapting VVG the DT domestic JJ economy NN to TO mesh VV with IN the DT global JJ economy NN . SENT Competition NN policy NN formally RB includes VVZ two CD domains NNS a DT the DT regulation NN and CC control NN or CC monopolization NN of IN a DT market NN , , including VVG the DT regulation NN of IN business NN practices NNS such JJ as IN predatory JJ pricing NN , , and CC contractual JJ agreements NNS that WDT lead VVP to TO barriers NNS to TO entry NN , , mergers NNS , , and CC acquisitions NNS and CC b LS the DT regulation NN of IN state NN aids NNS to TO industry NN , , including VVG direct JJ and CC indirect JJ subsidies NNS and CC the DT granting VVG of IN preferential JJ status NN Graham NP and CC Warner NP , , 1994 CD . SENT The DT first JJ domain NN is VBZ referred VVN to TO as RB antitrust JJ or CC anti JJ monopolies NNS policy NN . SENT The DT second JJ domain NN is VBZ usually RB known VVN as IN states NNS aid NN policy NN . SENT In IN the DT United NP States NPS , , national JJ authorities NNS in IN charge NN of IN anti JJ trust NN enforcement NN do VVP not RB generally RB have VH enforcement NN authority NN over IN state NN aids NNS policies NNS . SENT Graham NP and CC Warner NP 1994 CD . SENT 464 CD point NN out RP that IN almost RB any DT regulatory JJ authority NN of IN government NN has VHZ some DT bearing NN on IN competition NN policy NN . SENT Particularly RB relevant JJ are VBP laws NNS and CC policies NNS related VVN to TO intellectual JJ property NN patents NNS , , copyrights NNS , , import NN export NN regulation NN , , and CC the DT right NN of IN foreign JJ corporations NNS to TO establish VV or CC acquire VV affiliates NNS within IN a DT country NN . SENT These DT policies NNS apply VVP to TO the DT production NN , , location NN , , growth NN , , and CC distribution NN rights NNS of IN American NP MNCs NP . SENT The DT NAFTA NP agreement NN between IN the DT USA NP , , Canada NP , , and CC Mexico NP includes VVZ a DT chapter NN entitled VVN Competition NP Policy NP , , Monopolies NP , , and CC State NP Enterprises NPS . SENT The DT three CD countries NNS were VBD directed VVN to TO have VH a DT competition NN law NN to TO proscribe VV anti JJ competitive JJ business NN conduct NN and CC to TO take VV appropriate JJ action NN thereto RB , , and CC to TO cooperate VV with IN each DT other JJ to TO enforce VV these DT laws NNS Graham NP and CC Warner NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 464 CD . SENT The DT NAFTA NP supported VVD the DT liberalization NN of IN trade NN and CC investment NN activities NNS in IN North NP America NP , , but CC offered VVD little JJ direction NN for IN anti JJ monopolies NNS or CC state NN aids NNS policy NN . SENT Anti JJ Trust NP Laws NP Historically RB , , relevant JJ anti JJ trust NN laws NNS were VBD instituted VVN in IN the DT United NP States NPS in IN 1890 CD in IN the DT Sherman NP Act NP , , which WDT was VBD later RBR expanded VVN through IN the DT Clayton NP Act NP in IN the DT early JJ twentieth JJ century NN , , and CC further JJR by IN the DT Federal NP Trade NP Commission NP Act NP and CC Robinson NP Patman NP Act NP . SENT All DT four CD of IN these DT Acts NNS had VHD been VBN actively RB enforced VVN since IN they PP were VBD established VVN . SENT The DT Reagan NP administration NN , , in IN the DT 1980 CD s PP , , abandoned VVD anti JJ trust NN efforts NNS and CC gave VVD the DT green JJ light NN to TO big JJ business NN decisions NNS , , sanctions NNS , , and CC activities NNS . SENT In IN the DT later JJR part NN of IN the DT 1980 CD s PP the DT Bush NP government NN further RBR changed VVD the DT anti JJ trust NN laws NNS to TO allow VV free JJ competition NN by IN American NP MNCs NP to TO flow VV uncontested JJ . SENT When WRB a DT company NN became VVD big JJ enough NN , , that WDT there RB existed VVD no DT viable JJ contenders NNS , , to TO keep VV them PP efficient JJ , , they PP could MD operate VV in IN almost RB any DT way NN they PP wanted VVD to TO . SENT Anti JJ trust NN abuses NNS and CC price VV fixing VVG have VH proliferated VVN in IN the DT US NP since IN the DT beginning NN of IN the DT twentieth JJ century NN . SENT The DT same JJ behaviors NNS continue VVP , , but CC now RB on IN a DT global JJ scale NN , , which WDT is VBZ predicted VVN to TO escalate VV in IN the DT new JJ millennium NN . SENT In IN the DT past NN , , the DT United NP States NPS Justice NP Department NP would MD scrutinize VV any DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT corporation NN that WDT bought VVD a DT foreign JJ company NN , , or CC engaged VVN in IN a DT joint JJ venture NN with IN a DT foreign JJ firm NN , , or CC made VVD any DT agreements NNS abroad RB with IN a DT competing VVG company NN , , with IN an DT eye NN for IN the DT competitive JJ effects NNS of IN corporate JJ activity NN . SENT This DT scrutiny NN was VBD sanctioned VVN by IN American JJ anti JJ trust NN laws NNS . SENT In IN the DT 1990 CD s PP these DT anti JJ trust NN laws NNS have VHP been VBN the DT focus NN of IN much JJ debate NN , , resulting VVG in IN generous JJ allowances NNS for IN international JJ marketers NNS who WP were VBD cooperating VVG to TO develop VV foreign JJ markets NNS . SENT Due JJ to TO ongoing JJ globalization NN of IN production NN , , competition NN , , supply NN and CC demand NN , , US NP anti JJ trust NN laws NNS have VHP lost VVN their PP$ sting NN , , especially RB for IN MNCs NP . SENT Foreign JJ based VVN MNCs NNS are VBP still RB formerly RB regulated VVN by IN U NP . SENT S NP . SENT laws NNS against IN bribery NN and CC corruption NN . SENT In IN 1977 CD , , the DT Foreign NP Corrupt NP Practices NPS Act NP was VBD passed VVN , , making VVG it PP a DT crime NN for IN American JJ corporations NNS to TO bribe VV foreign JJ officials NNS for IN business NN gain NN . SENT This DT stance NN has VHZ been VBN argued VVN by IN MNCs NP operating NN in IN foreign JJ countries NNS as IN hindering VVG their PP$ capacity NN to TO compete VV in IN countries NNS where WRB bribes NNS are VBP not RB outlawed VVN Czinkota NP Ronkainen NP , , 1996 CD . SENT In IN response NN to TO this DT , , revisions NNS to TO the DT 1988 CD Trade NP Act NP to TO clarify VV the DT intent NN and CC use NN of IN the DT Foreign NP Corrupt NP Practices NPS legislation NN occurred VVD . SENT Policy NN decisions NNS pertained VVD mainly RB to TO situations NNS when WRB contract NN agreements NNS and CC retention NN were VBD in IN question NN . SENT The DT illegal JJ influencing VVG of IN policy NN decisions NNS was VBD subject JJ to TO fines NNS and CC incarceration NN . SENT The DT facilitation NN of IN routine JJ business NN actions NNS , , such JJ as IN obtaining VVG licences NNS and CC permits NNS , , processing VVG government NN papers NNS such JJ as IN visas NNS and CC work NN papers NNS , , cargo NN loading NN , , and CC obtaining VVG mail NN and CC phone NN services NNS were VBD not RB . SENT It PP is VBZ interesting JJ , , that IN the DT American JJ government NN has VHZ been VBN influential JJ in IN promoting VVG anti JJ trust NN initiatives NNS in IN foreign JJ countries NNS , , yet RB allows VVZ MNCs NNS from IN their PP$ home NN soils NNS to TO operate VV without IN serious JJ restriction NN in IN this DT context NN . SENT On IN surface NN examination NN , , the DT American JJ government NN has VHZ tightened VVN anti JJ trust NN laws NNS , , but CC most JJS investigations NNS have VHP focused VVN on IN foreign JJ owned VVN MNCs NNS , , particularly RB Japanese JJ ones NNS . SENT Often RB , , American NP MNCs NP are VBP allowed VVN to TO operate VV in IN a DT business NN as IN usual JJ modi NP operandi NP . SENT Lowe NP 1992 CD defined VVD anti JJ trust NN violations NNS covered VVN by IN American JJ law NN as IN corporate JJ activities NNS which WDT . SENT a DT allow VVP corporate JJ contracts NNS , , combinations NNS , , or CC conspiracies NNS to TO restrain VV trade NN activity NN b SYM encourage VV the DT development NN of IN monopolies NNS within IN an DT industry NN c SYM sanction NN mergers NNS and CC acquisitions NNS , , whether IN horizontal JJ , , vertical JJ , , or CC conglomerate NN , , to TO greatly RB lessen VV the DT competition NN or CC lead VV to TO a DT monopoly NN and CC use VV unfair JJ methods NNS of IN competition NN , , such JJ as IN price NN fixing VVG , , predatory JJ pricing NN , , or CC dumping VVG . SENT Recently RB , , Americans NNS maintained VVD anti NN dumping VVG and CC subsidies NNS and CC countervailing VVG measures NNS laws NNS which WDT gave VVD them PP an DT advantage NN over IN Canada NP and CC Mexico NP , , despite IN the DT NAFTA NP agreement NN . SENT Graham NP and CC Warner NP warned VVD that IN the DT gains NNS from IN liberalized VVN trade NN can MD be VB offset VVN by IN the DT anti JJ competitive JJ actions NNS of IN very RB large JJ producers NNS , , 1994 CD . SENT 467 CD . SENT The DT NAFTA NP agreement NN did VVD not RB prevent VV the DT danger NN of IN a DT merger NN acquired VVN and CC managed VVN under IN foreign JJ control NN i NP . SENT e SYM . SENT American JJ emerging VVG as IN the DT dominant JJ firm NN in IN the DT local JJ market NN of IN another DT nation NN , , such JJ as IN Mexico NP . SENT Foreign NP Investment NP An DT economy NN s PP overall JJ acceptance NN of IN foreign JJ involvement NN can MD be VB estimated VVN by IN analyzing VVG the DT degree NN of IN foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN engaged VVN in IN by IN a DT country NN in IN a DT particular JJ industry NN , , as RB well RB as RB by IN the DT rules NNS and CC policies NNS that WDT pertain VV to TO such JJ investments NNS . SENT Restrictions NNS exist VVP mainly RB by IN industry NN type NN and CC by IN country NN of IN origin NN of IN the DT investor NN . SENT In IN the DT USA NP , , major JJ foreign JJ direct JJ investments NNS must MD be VB reviewed VVN by IN the DT Committee NP for IN Foreign NP Investments NPS in IN the DT United NP States NPS CFiUS NP . SENT Kudrle NP 1994 CD . SENT 142 CD points NNS out IN that DT despite IN an DT obvious JJ political JJ openness NN to TO incoming JJ foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN IFDI NP , , supported VVN by IN liberal JJ American JJ policies NNS , , . SENT . SENT . SENT all DT nations NNS prohibit VVP or CC explicitly RB control VV IFDI NP in IN certain JJ sectors NNS of IN the DT economy NN . SENT Certain JJ sensitive JJ national JJ industries NNS are VBP considered VVN taboo JJ , , and CC not RB open JJ to TO IFDI NP . SENT Most JJS countries NNS limit VVP the DT degree NN of IN foreign JJ owned VVN subsidiaries NNS in IN industries NNS such JJ as IN public JJ broadcasting NN , , banking NN , , insurance NN , , mineral NN exploitation NN on IN public JJ lands NNS , , aircraft NN , , and CC coast NN wide JJ shipping NN . SENT These DT controlled VVN sectors NNS of IN industry NN are VBP , , for IN the DT most JJS part NN , , domestically RB controlled VVN . SENT The DT OECD NP has VHZ identified VVN three CD categories NNS of IN genuine JJ sectoral JJ restriction NN . SENT a DT general JJ authorization NN and CC regulation NN by IN government NN policies NNS , , b LS controls NNS and CC impediments NNS by IN sector NN and CC c LS preemption NN by IN state NN or CC national JJ authorized VVN or CC operated VVN monopoly NN that WDT controls VVZ or CC excludes VVZ entry NN by IN both DT domestic JJ and CC foreign JJ corporations NNS . SENT The DT motivation NN for IN sectoral JJ restrictions NNS has VHZ been VBN linked VVN to TO national JJ security NN . SENT Recently RB , , changes NNS in IN sectoral JJ restriction NN have VHP occurred VVN in IN several JJ countries NNS , , favoring VVG more JJR IFDI NP , , particularly RB from IN American JJ investors NNS . SENT Bergsten NP 1994 CD . SENT 392 CD described VVD the DT need NN for IN an DT international JJ agreement NN and CC policies NNS to TO guide VV foreign JJ investment NN activities NNS . SENT He PP observed VVD that IN in IN the DT last JJ 20 CD years NNS , , the DT world NN has VHZ seen VVN the DT development NN of IN a DT regime NN of IN sorts NNS in IN the DT investment NN area NN , , . SENT Bergsten NP tagged VVN this DT a DT quasi NP regime NN , , observable JJ at IN multilateral JJ , , bilateral JJ , , regional JJ , , and CC national JJ levels NNS . SENT Vital JJ to TO this DT process NN was VBD the DT OECD NP Code NP on IN Capital NP Movements NNS , , coupled VVN with IN the DT activities NNS of IN the DT Multilateral NP Investment NP Guarantee NP Agency NP MIGA NP , , at IN the DT World NP Bank NP . SENT The DT NAFTA NP agreement NN also RB offered VVD the DT impetus NN for IN the DT creation NN of IN mutual JJ international JJ investment NN agreements NNS between IN the DT United NP States NPS , , Canada NP , , and CC Mexico NP . SENT Unilateral JJ liberalization NN of IN investment NN strategies NNS have VHP also RB been VBN observed VVN since IN the DT late JJ 1980 CD s PP , , by IN many JJ nations NNS . SENT The DT United NP States NPS had VHD chosen VVN to TO move VV in IN the DT opposite JJ direction NN , , restricting VVG the DT inflow NN of IN foreign JJ investment NN into IN the DT American JJ market NN . SENT An DT example NN of IN this DT was VBD the DT adoption NN of IN the DT Exon NP Florio NP amendment NN to TO the DT Omnibus JJ Trade NN and CC Competitiveness NN Act NN in IN 1988 CD Bergsten NP , , 1994 CD . SENT With IN the DT swift JJ growth NN of IN globalization NN , , the DT issue NN of IN investment NN policy NN and CC directives NNS had VHD become VVN an DT important JJ topic NN in IN the DT international JJ agenda NN . SENT Historically RB , , the DT American JJ government NN has VHZ attempted VVN to TO design VV systematic JJ , , activist JJ policies NNS about IN the DT operation NN of IN the DT large JJ , , complex JJ , , dynamic JJ U NP . SENT S NP . SENT economy NN . SENT Traditionally RB , , US NP government NN policies NNS had VHD been VBN quite RB liberal JJ toward IN inward RB and CC outward RB Foreign NP Direct NP Investments NPS FDI NP , , and CC more RBR structured VVN in IN relation NN to TO trade VV policy NN . SENT Today NN , , policy NN towards IN FDI NP tends VVZ to TO be VB quite RB neutral JJ , , permitting VVG freedom NN for IN MNCs NP to TO make VV independent JJ corporate JJ decisions NNS Globerman NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Since IN World NP War NP II NP , , the DT private JJ enterprise NN system NN has VHZ been VBN constrained VVN in IN its PP$ ability NN to TO keep VV transaction NN and CC production NN costs NNS to TO a DT minimum NN , , by IN the DT political JJ and CC institutional JJ structure NN , , and CC the DT economic JJ and CC social JJ milieu NN in IN which WDT they PP operate VVP Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 63 CD . SENT Now RB , , governments NNS are VBP beginning VVG to TO view VV MNCs NP as IN a DT means VVZ to TO advance VV the DT efficiency NN of IN their PP$ national JJ resource NN usage NN , , and CC to TO sustain VV or CC improve VV their PP$ living VVG standards NNS on IN par NN with IN those DT of IN other JJ major JJ foreign JJ competitors NNS . SENT This DT will MD occur VV when WRB outbound JJ direct JJ investment NN advances NNS the DT innovatory JJ capacity NN and CC the DT efficiency NN of IN resource NN allocation NN of IN the DT investing VVG country NN , , and CC when WRB inbound JJ direct JJ investment NN increase VV the DT innovatory JJ capacity NN and CC competitiveness NN of IN the DT resources NNS of IN the DT recipient JJ economy NN , , Dunning NP , , 1994 CD . SENT 64 CD . SENT Legal JJ and CC regulatory JJ measures NNS which WDT target VVP international JJ marketers NNS can MD come VV from IN the DT company NN s PP own VVP country NN , , as RB well RB as RB from IN the DT host NN country NN . SENT Some DT of IN these DT measures NNS are VBP designed VVN to TO help VV and CC protect VV MNCs NNS in IN their PP$ international JJ efforts NNS , , others NNS serve VVP to TO enforce VV corporate JJ conduct NN guidelines NNS . SENT Through IN bilateral JJ or CC multilateral JJ negotiations NNS , , a DT government NN can MD reduce VV trade NN barriers NNS and CC increase VV trade NN opportunities NNS for IN MNCs NP Spero NP , , 1990 CD . SENT . SENT Home NN countries NNS may MD implement VV special JJ laws NNS and CC regulations NNS to TO ensure VV that IN the DT MNC NP conducts VVZ business NN within IN the DT legal JJ , , moral JJ , , and CC ethical JJ boundaries NNS considered VVD appropriate JJ . SENT Foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN permits VVZ MNCs NP to TO circumvent VV barriers NNS to TO trade VV , , unaffected JJ by IN duties NNS , , tariffs NNS , , or CC other JJ import NN restrictions NNS . SENT Government NN has VHZ found VVN that IN FDI NP can MD lead VV to TO increased JJ employment NN and CC income NN . SENT More JJR and CC more JJR , , state NN and CC local JJ governments NNS are VBP also RB participating VVG in IN investment NN protection NN activities NNS . SENT Tension NN often RB exists VVZ between IN the DT government NN and CC the DT foreign JJ direct JJ investor NN . SENT As IN a DT corporation NN s PP size VVP and CC investment NN volume NN grows VVZ , , the DT impact NN and CC benefits NNS it PP brings VVZ to TO the DT domestic JJ and CC foreign JJ economy NN increase NN . SENT Dependence NN of IN the DT economy NN on IN the DT MNC NP increases VVZ as RB well RB . SENT Particularly RB in IN developing VVG countries NNS , , the DT knowledge NN advantage NN of IN foreign JJ investors NNS may MD be VB used VVN for IN exploitation NN of IN the DT host NN country NN s PP customs NNS and CC policies NNS Czinkota NP Ronkainen NP , , 1996 CD . SENT American JJ multinational JJ corporations NNS have VHP a DT profound JJ impact NN on IN the DT ways NNS in IN which WDT the DT United NP States NPS is VBZ linked VVN to TO the DT world NN economy NN . SENT American JJ and CC non JJ American JJ direct JJ foreign JJ investment NN and CC MNCs NP have VHP expanded VVN so RB rapidly RB within IN the DT last JJ three CD decades NNS that IN they PP now RB account VVP for IN a DT major JJ part NN of IN international JJ economic JJ activity NN Walters NP Blake NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Their PP$ size NN and CC growth NN essentially RB make VV MNCs NP a DT new JJ international JJ economic JJ institution NN . SENT Issues NNS related VVN to TO American NP MNC NP Foreign NP Affiliation NN The DT rise NN of IN multinational JJ enterprises NNS and CC production NN systems NNS , , which WDT brought VVD easy JJ mobility NN of IN capital NN investment NN and CC jobs NNS from IN one CD country NN to TO another DT , , has VHZ obvious JJ benefits NNS as IN a DT modernizing VVG influence NN on IN the DT world NN Greider NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Lower JJR costs NNS and CC cheaper JJR prices NNS are VBP welcome JJ results NNS of IN MNC NP growth NN , , but CC the DT exploitive JJ effects NNS on IN nations NNS is VBZ a DT concern NN to TO many JJ . SENT As IN a DT political JJ system NN , , the DT global JJ economy NN is VBZ running VVG downhill RB a DT system NN that WDT searches VVZ the DT world NN for IN the DT lowest JJS common JJ denominator NN in IN terms NNS of IN national JJ standards NNS for IN wages NNS , , taxes NNS , , and CC corporate JJ obligations NNS to TO health NN , , the DT environment NN , , and CC stable JJ communities NNS , , Greider NP , , 1993 CD . SENT 195 CD . SENT The DT global JJ competition NN for IN cost NN advantage NN effectively RB weakens VVZ the DT sovereignty NN of IN every DT country NN , , by IN promoting VVG a DT fierce JJ contest NN for IN lower JJR public JJ standards NNS . SENT Labor NP Issues NPS High NP paying VVG jobs NNS , , previously RB enjoyed VVN by IN domestic JJ US NP workers NNS , , have VHP been VBN relocated VVN to TO developing VVG countries NNS such JJ as IN Mexico NP and CC Malaysia NP . SENT Mexican JJ workers NNS who WP toil VVP in IN MNC NP plants NNS by IN day NN , , go VV home NN to TO squalid JJ villages NNS , , devoid JJ of IN hygiene NN and CC sanitation NN , , living VVG on IN deplorable JJ wages NNS . SENT Mexican JJ labor NN unions NNS have VHP long RB been VBN integrated VVN into IN the DT Institutional NP Revolutionary NP Party NP , , and CC labor NN leaders NNS do VVP not RB enjoy VV the DT autonomy NN granted VVN to TO American JJ ones NNS . SENT Mexican JJ labor NN officials NNS can MD not RB be VB faulted VVN for IN believing VVG that DT liberalization NN of IN trade NN and CC investment NN in IN Mexico NP may MD well RB bring VV labor NN economic JJ advantages NNS for IN workers NNS Randell NP , , Konrad NP Silverman NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Confronted VVN for IN generations NNS with IN economic JJ stagnation NN , , most RBS Mexican JJ workers NNS long RB for IN the DT lifestyle NN enjoyed VVD north RB of IN the DT border NN . SENT Mexico NP has VHZ initiated VVN an DT ambitious JJ program NN of IN economic JJ reform NN measures NNS . SENT Adopting VVG the DT ideology NN of IN austerity NN , , they PP have VHP reduced VVN their PP$ fiscal JJ deficit NN , , inflation NN percentage NN , , state NN owned VVD companies NNS , , tariffs NNS and CC eliminated VVD most JJS of IN their PP$ non JJ tariff NN barriers NNS . SENT Although IN Mexico NP is VBZ trying VVG to TO improve VV the DT living VVG standards NNS of IN its PP$ people NNS , , the DT majority NN of IN the DT population NN still RB live VVP in IN poverty NN and CC often RB engage VV in IN child NN labor NN activity NN . SENT Monetary JJ Concerns NNS Greider NP 1993 CD reflects VVZ that IN American JJ politics NNS have VHP moved VVN off RP shore NN . SENT MNCs NP , , able JJ to TO coordinate VV production NN from IN many JJ different JJ countries NNS , , and CC unify VV markets NNS across IN national JJ boundaries NNS , , are VBP the DT only JJ organizations NNS active JJ in IN all DT areas NNS of IN the DT world NN Porter NP , , 1990 CD . SENT From IN arcane JJ regulatory JJ provisions NNS to TO national JJ priorities NNS , , the DT corporations NNS , , not RB the DT governments NNS have VHP become VVN the DT ultimate JJ decision NN makers NNS . SENT The DT question NN of IN what WP is VBZ foreign JJ and CC what WP is VBZ American NP has VHZ become VVN hazy JJ by IN the DT logistics NNS of IN global JJ commerce NN . SENT Multinational JJ executives NNS work VVP to TO enhance VV the DT company NN , , not RB the DT nation NN . SENT They PP run VVP stateless JJ corporations NNS on IN an DT international JJ level NN . SENT Host NN country NN critics NNS of IN American NP MNCs NP charge NN that IN the DT corporations NNS take VVP more RBR international JJ currency NN out IN of IN their PP$ country NN than IN they PP bring VVP in IN Walters NP Blake NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Repatriated VVN earnings NNS , , charges NNS for IN royalties NNS , , interest NN , , licenses NNS , , and CC various JJ managerial JJ services NNS plus CC expenses NNS incurred VVN by IN importing VVG necessary JJ equipment NN and CC component NN products NNS far RB outweigh VVP the DT positive JJ effects NNS such JJ as IN inflow NN of IN new JJ capital NN , , savings NNS resulting VVG from IN import NN substitution NN , , and CC earnings NNS gained VVD from IN exports NNS . SENT There EX is VBZ also RB voiced VVN suspicion NN that IN MNCs NP are VBP able JJ to TO hide VV behind IN financial JJ complexities NNS , , and CC manipulations NNS to TO avoid VV taxes NNS . SENT MNCs NNS are VBP said VVN to TO be VB able JJ to TO use VV their PP$ internationalism NN to TO avoid VV onerous JJ government NN policies NNS . SENT MNCs NNS are VBP usually RB fierce JJ and CC successful JJ competitors NNS with IN domestic JJ industries NNS . SENT Their PP$ large JJ size NN , , huge JJ managerial JJ and CC financial JJ resources NNS , , worldwide JJ reputation NN , , and CC product NN recognition NN often RB mean VVP that IN MNCs NP can MD literally RB overwhelm VV local JJ corporations NNS . SENT Developmental JJ Economic NP Growth NP and CC Trade NP Agreements NNS U NP . SENT S NP . SENT based VVN MNCs NNS comprise VVP the DT bulk NN of IN the DT negotiating VVG parties NNS affected VVN by IN the DT new JJ NAFTA NP accord NN . SENT In IN both DT Mexico NP and CC Canada NP , , subsidiaries NNS of IN American NP MNCs NP comprise VVP two CD thirds NNS of IN US NP foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN FDI NP Vernon NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Even RB before IN NAFTA NP , , American NP MNCs NP accounted VVD for IN 69 CD percent NN of IN the DT total JJ exports NNS from IN the DT USA NP to TO Canada NP in IN 1989 CD , , and CC 52 CD percent NN of IN the DT exports NNS to TO Mexico NP . SENT American JJ laws NNS and CC policies NNS have VHP always RB considered VVN the DT effects NNS of IN international JJ factors NNS on IN their PP$ national JJ domestic JJ market NN . SENT The DT NAFTA NP directives NNS allows VVZ mergers NNS and CC acquisitions NNS by IN one CD country NN , , such JJ as IN the DT USA NP , , which WDT may MD not RB prove VV beneficial JJ by IN the DT receiving VVG nation NN , , such JJ as IN Mexico NP . SENT If IN the DT merger NN provides VVZ a DT North JJ American JJ efficiency NN gain NN , , enjoyed VVN mainly RB by IN the DT Americans NPS , , the DT negative JJ effects NNS to TO Mexico NP tend VVP not RB to TO be VB taken VVN seriously RB . SENT A DT North NP American NP competition NN bureau NN might MD still RB allow VV the DT merger NN , , despite IN the DT fact NN that WDT most JJS of IN the DT dividends NNS would MD be VB going VVG to TO the DT USA NP , , and CC cause VV a DT reduction NN in IN competition NN by IN Mexican JJ corporations NNS . SENT Some DT mergers NNS entail VV a DT trade NN off RP between IN loss NN of IN competition NN and CC a DT gain NN in IN efficiency NN . SENT There EX has VHZ been VBN no DT allowance NN made VVN in IN the DT NAFTA NP agreement NN to TO reduce VV the DT USA NP s PP power NN to TO use VV the DT less JJR than IN fair JJ value NN LTFV NP measures VVZ of IN trade NN laws NNS for IN their PP$ own JJ benefit NN , , in IN particular JJ , , the DT anti JJ dumping VVG resistance NN to TO underpricing VVG and CC anti JJ subsidies NNS measures NNS sanctioned VVN by IN the DT General NP Agreement NP on IN Tariffs NPS and CC Trade NP GATT NP , , which WDT has VHZ now RB been VBN replaced VVN by IN the DT World NP Trade NP Organization NP Caves NP , , 1996 CD . SENT The DT LTFV NP measures NNS have VHP been VBN growing VVG worldwide RB , , causing VVG bias NN against IN importers NNS , , and CC favoring VVG domestic JJ producers NNS in IN the DT United NP States NPS . SENT Low JJ de NP minimis NP thresholds NNS for IN dumping VVG determinations NNS aggravate VVP the DT problem NN Graham NP and CC Warner NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Both DT Canada NP and CC Mexico NP sought VVD to TO eliminate VV the DT LTFV NP laws NNS , , when WRB negotiating VVG NAFTA NP , , but CC the DT USA NP policy NN makers NNS adamantly RB opposed VVN this DT . SENT Anti JJ predation NN measures NNS in IN the DT anti JJ monopolies NNS laws NNS are VBP designed VVN to TO prevent VV one CD MNC NP from IN gaining VVG market NN dominance NN by IN driving VVG competitors NNS out RP of IN the DT market NN , , which WDT does VVZ somewhat RB curtail VV dumping VVG in IN North NP America NP . SENT Graham NP and CC Warner NP 1994 CD . SENT 487 CD suggested VVN that IN the DT central JJ purpose NN of IN the DT antitrust JJ laws NNS is VBZ to TO prevent VV firms NNS from IN attaining VVG either DT market NN power NN or CC monopoly NN power NN because IN firms NNS possessing VVG such JJ power NN can MD raise VV prices NNS to TO consumers NNS above IN competitive JJ levels NNS , , thereby RB effecting VVG a DT transfer NN of IN wealth NN from IN consumers NNS to TO such JJ firms NNS . SENT Over IN time NN , , the DT GATT NP became VVD outdated JJ , , due JJ to TO the DT growth NN of IN voluntary JJ agreements NNS to TO restrain VV trade NN in IN the DT form NN of IN bilateral JJ or CC multilateral JJ special JJ trade NN agreements NNS . SENT In IN order NN to TO restore VV GATT NP s PP relevance NN , , a DT new JJ set NN of IN agreements NNS was VBD begun VVN . SENT This DT negotiation NN enforced VVN several JJ new JJ directives NNS . SENT Non JJ tariff NN barriers NNS were VBD removed VVN , , intellectual JJ property NN rights NNS guidelines NNS were VBD developed VVN to TO protect VV patents NNS and CC trademarks NNS , , and CC trade VV related JJ investment NN measures NNS were VBD created VVN . SENT A DT key JJ result NN of IN these DT recent JJ negotiations NNS was VBD the DT formation NN of IN the DT World NP Trade NP Organization NP WTO NP , , which WDT oversaw VVD and CC handled VVD GATT NP agreements NNS and CC encouraged VVN future JJ international JJ negotiations NNS . SENT The DT new JJ WTO NP was VBD launched VVN in IN 1995 CD and CC provided VVD a DT structured JJ international JJ trade NN framework NN for IN both DT governments NNS and CC MNCs NNS . SENT It PP was VBD the DT result NN of IN an DT eight CD year NN process NN of IN trade NN negotiation NN known VVN as IN the DT Uruguay NP Round NP . SENT The DT WTO NP secretariat NN , , located VVN in IN Geneva NP , , Switzerland NP , , continues VVZ to TO administer VV multilateral JJ trade NN agreements NNS , , facilitate VV future JJ trade NN negotiations NNS , , and CC oversee VV trade NN dispute NN resolution NN on IN behalf NN of IN more JJR than IN 120 CD member NN countries NNS . SENT The DT WTO NP has VHZ been VBN predicted VVN to TO have VH more JJR influence NN on IN human JJ lives NNS than IN any DT other JJ institution NN in IN the DT history NN of IN mankind NN . SENT With IN the DT establishment NN of IN the DT WTO NP , , trade NN agreements NNS now RB include VVP investment NN measures NNS , , intellectual JJ property NN rights NNS , , every DT type NN of IN domestic JJ regulation NN , , including VVG services NNS . SENT It PP would MD be VB difficult JJ to TO identify VV an DT issue NN of IN social JJ , , economic JJ or CC environmental JJ significance NN that WDT does VVZ not RB come VV under IN the DT scrutiny NN of IN this DT trade NN regulation NN . SENT In IN addition NN to TO multilateral JJ agreements NNS , , MNCs NNS are VBP affected VVN by IN bilateral JJ treaties NNS and CC agreements NNS . SENT The DT US NP government NN has VHZ signed VVN bilateral JJ agreements NNS of IN friendship NN , , commerce NN , , and CC navigation NN FCN NP , , with IN many JJ countries NNS . SENT These DT agreements NNS often RB guarantee VVP that IN the DT MNC NP will MD be VB treated VVN by IN the DT host NN country NN with IN the DT same JJ privileges NNS afforded VVN domestic JJ companies NNS . SENT The DT United NP States NPS has VHZ long RB operated VVN with IN a DT large JJ deficit NN . SENT In IN recent JJ years NNS , , virtually RB all DT nations NNS have VHP also RB developed VVN national JJ deficits NNS . SENT With IN the DT Clinton NP administration NN , , the DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT government NN has VHZ moved VVN to TO reform VV many JJ parts NNS of IN the DT economy NN . SENT The DT NAFTA NP and CC Uruguay NP Rounds NP initiatives NNS have VHP opened VVN up RP strategies NNS which WDT seriously RB impact NN on IN foreign JJ investment NN agreements NNS with IN the DT United NP States NPS . SENT The DT American JJ stance NN has VHZ become VVN a DT quasi NP protectionist NN one NN , , demanding VVG that IN foreign JJ countries NNS bring VVP down RP tariffs NNS , , open VV up RP trade NN and CC investment NN policies NNS , , and CC structure VV their PP$ economic JJ position NN before IN the DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT will MD enter VV into IN negotiations NNS with IN them PP . SENT Nader NP 1993 CD , , warned VVN that IN MNCs NP operating VVG under IN the DT deceptive JJ banner NN of IN free JJ trade NN , , were VBD working VVG hard RB to TO expand VV their PP$ control NN over IN the DT international JJ economy NN . SENT Using VVG the DT NAFTA NP initiative NN and CC the DT Uruguay NP Round NP an DT expansion NN of IN the DT GATT NP directives NNS , , ambitious JJ goals NNS had VHD been VBN set VVN , , particularly RB for IN developing VVG country NN agreements NNS to TO gain VV control NN over IN Third NP World NP economies NNS and CC natural JJ resources NNS . SENT It PP is VBZ only RB recently RB that IN corporations NNS developed VVD the DT notion NN of IN using VVG trade NN agreements NNS to TO establish VV autocratic JJ governance NN over IN many DT modestly RB democratic JJ countries NNS , , Nader NP , , 1993 CD . SENT 2 LS . SENT The DT core JJ principal NN of IN international JJ trade NN policy NN is VBZ to TO remove VV impediments NNS to TO the DT free JJ flow NN of IN goods NNS and CC services NNS between IN countries NNS . SENT NAFTA NP is VBZ an DT agreement NN which WDT encompasses VVZ not RB only RB financial JJ matters NNS , , investment NN , , intellectual JJ property NN , , and CC commerce NN but CC also RB dispute NN resolution NN , , banking NN , , transport NN , , and CC services NNS . SENT It PP eliminates VVZ the DT vetoing VVG power NN of IN social JJ , , economic JJ , , consumer NN protection NN , , and CC environmental JJ regulations NNS . SENT The DT transfer NN of IN resources NNS would MD have VH three CD aims NNS . SENT to TO improve VV infrastructure NN , , harmonize VV standards NNS , , and CC subsidize VV excessive JJ adjustment NN costs NNS . SENT Lipsey NP , , Schwanen NP Wonnacott NP 1994 CD point NN out RP , , that IN like IN any DT trade NN agreement NN , , NAFTA NP puts VVZ some DT constraints NNS on IN the DT policies NNS of IN all PDT its PP$ signatories NNS . SENT For IN instance NN , , policies NNS that WDT directly RB impose VV certain JJ performance NN requirements NNS that WDT are VBP potentially RB detrimental JJ to TO competitors NNS in IN other JJ NAFTA NP countries NNS are VBP judged VVN inappropriate JJ , , since IN the DT aim NN is VBZ to TO open VV up RP borders NNS to TO competition NN . SENT MNCs NNS have VHP voiced VVN their PP$ intention NN to TO have VH the DT freedom NN to TO invest VV anywhere RB in IN the DT world NN without IN restriction NN , , and CC to TO maintain VV the DT rights NNS to TO intellectual JJ property NN in IN the DT form NN of IN trademarks NNS , , patents NNS , , and CC copyrights NNS . SENT With IN the DT formation NN of IN the DT Multilateral NP Trade NP Organization NP which WDT enhanced VVD GATT NP s PP power NN over IN all DT participating VVG countries NNS , , the DT ability NN to TO undermine VV the DT power NN of IN local JJ , , state NN , , or CC national JJ governments NNS to TO impose VV any DT sort NN of IN control NN over IN business NN had VHD been VBN established VVN . SENT The DT Uruguay NP Round NP expansion NN of IN GATT NP and CC NAFTA NP helped VVD establish VV a DT world NN economic JJ arena NN dominated VVN by IN giant JJ corporations NNS . SENT Nader NP described VVD these DT trade NN agreements NNS as IN vehicles NNS which WDT enabled VVD MNCs NP to TO pit VV country NN against IN country NN in IN a DT race NN to TO see VV who WP could MD set VV the DT lowest JJS wage NN levels NNS , , the DT lowest JJS environmental JJ standards NNS , , the DT lowest JJS consumer NN safety NN standards NNS , , and CC to TO escalate VV short JJ term NN profits NNS . SENT The DT GATT NP and CC NAFTA NP also RB limited VVD a DT host NN country NN s PP ability NN to TO exclude VV exports NNS on IN the DT basis NN of IN labor NN , , human JJ rights NNS , , or CC environmental JJ conditions NNS . SENT The DT Uruguay NP Round NP allowed VVD MNCs NP to TO label VV sanctions NNS initiated VVN by IN developing VVG countries NNS as IN non JJ tariff NN trade NN barriers NNS which WDT the DT WTO NP trade NN pact NN prohibited VVD . SENT Disputes NNS about IN non JJ tariff NN trade NN barriers NNS were VBD no RB longer RBR decided VVN by IN government NN officials NNS , , but CC by IN MNC NP bureaucrats NNS . SENT Trade NN Liberalization NN Trade NP liberalization NN and CC market NN integration NN are VBP the DT pillars NNS of IN an DT ideology NN in IN which WDT acquiring VVG income NN , , wealth NN , , position NN , , and CC power NN is VBZ the DT appropriate JJ focus NN of IN all DT human JJ activity NN and CC the DT source NN of IN all DT well RB being VBG Grinspun NP Cameron NP , , 1993 CD . SENT The DT multinational JJ corporation NN , , foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN , , and CC the DT general JJ free JJ flow NN of IN capital NN , , supported VVN by IN trade NN liberalization NN measures NNS , , are VBP seen VVN as IN the DT joint JJ saviors NNS of IN Western JJ economy NN . SENT As IN MNCs NP prosper VV and CC profits NNS are VBP maximized VVN , , economic JJ efficiency NN is VBZ enhanced VVN , , product NN variety NN and CC quality NN is VBZ increased VVN , , consumer NN choice NN becomes VVZ diverse JJ , , and CC the DT general NN well RB being VBG of IN society NN is VBZ maximized VVN . SENT In IN this DT view NN , , the DT role NN of IN governments NNS is VBZ to TO remove VV hindrances NNS that WDT obstruct VV the DT workings NNS of IN the DT market NN . SENT MNCs NNS expect VVP the DT governments NNS to TO protect VV their PP$ international JJ interests NNS . SENT Government NN attitudes NNS and CC actions NNS toward IN education NN and CC the DT labor NN force NN are VBP being VBG focused VVN more JJR and CC more JJR on IN meeting VVG the DT needs NNS of IN MNCs NP . SENT GATT NP s PP principles NNS of IN liberalization NN or CC opening NN up IN one CD s PP national JJ economy NN to TO outside JJ market NN forces NNS , , have VHP been VBN applied VVN not RB only RB to TO trade VV , , but CC also RB investments NNS and CC services NNS Khor NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Third JJ World NP countries NNS are VBP easy JJ to TO influence VV , , since IN most JJS of IN them PP face VVP pressures NNS caused VVN by IN external JJ debt NN and CC dependence NN on IN World NP Bank NP loans NNS . SENT The DT MTO NP includes VVZ an DT integrated JJ dispute NN settlement NN procedure NN that WDT enables VVZ cross VV sectoral JJ retaliation NN . SENT Undeveloped JJ or CC developing JJ countries NNS have VHP no DT choice NN but CC to TO comply VV . SENT Furthermore RB , , the DT MTO NP has VHZ agreed VVN to TO cooperate VV with IN the DT International NP Monetary NP Fund NP IMF NP and CC the DT World NP Bank NP . SENT The DT three CD organizations NNS could MD synchronize VV their PP$ policies NNS towards IN the DT Third JJ World NN and CC institute NN cross VVP conditionalities NNS to TO pressure VV developing VVG countries NNS to TO accept VV the DT policies NNS of IN all DT three CD institutions NNS . SENT A DT single JJ set NN of IN policies NNS , , instituting VVG an DT economic JJ mono JJ culture NN , , driven VVN by IN three CD global JJ institutions NNS has VHZ been VBN set VVN in IN place NN . SENT In IN effect NN , , developing VVG nations NNS have VHP had VHN their PP$ economies NNS placed VVN at IN the DT service NN of IN MNCs NP , , with IN limited JJ space NN for IN independent JJ policies NNS . SENT The DT MTO NP decontextualizes VVZ trade NN , , investment NN , , services NNS , , and CC intellectual JJ property NN from IN broader JJR social JJ and CC developmental JJ issues NNS . SENT These DT issues NNS are VBP treated VVN through IN the DT perspective NN of IN laissez NP faire NP commerce NN , , and CC the DT overriding JJ imperative NN for IN liberalization NN . SENT The DT liberalizing VVG of IN investment NN movements NNS would MD open VV up RP Third NP World NP countries NNS to TO faster JJR exploitation NN of IN their PP$ natural JJ resources NNS , , and CC rapid JJ transfer NN of IN environmentally RB harmful JJ investments NNS , , projects NNS , , and CC products NNS . SENT Liberalization NN of IN services NNS pressures NNS developing VVG countries NNS to TO accept VV and CC receive VV the DT cultural JJ and CC professional JJ services NNS of IN foreign JJ companies NNS and CC individuals NNS . SENT Also RB , , the DT MTO NP trade NN liberalization NN is VBZ not RB balanced VVN by IN national JJ and CC international JJ commitments NNS to TO respect VV sustainable JJ development NN . SENT Influences NNS of IN MNCs NP on IN Developing VVG Countries NNS . SENT Economic JJ Sanctions NNS Economic NP sanctions NNS occupy VV a DT key JJ position NN in IN the DT foreign JJ policy NN initiatives NNS of IN most JJS states NNS , , especially RB the DT USA NP . SENT Governments NNS use VVP sanctions NNS to TO signal VV resolve NN of IN global JJ or CC national JJ resolve NN and CC to TO exert VV pressure NN for IN policy NN changes NNS , , particularly RB in IN foreign JJ countries NNS . SENT Although IN the DT goals NNS of IN sanctions NNS are VBP highly RB political JJ , , a DT country NN s PP ability NN to TO use VV them PP are VBP subject JJ to TO the DT rules NNS of IN economic JJ exchange NN Martin NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Sanctions NNS are VBP costly JJ for IN the DT country NN imposing VVG them PP , , which WDT allows VVZ governments NNS to TO demonstrate VV resolve NN and CC to TO send VV signals NNS to TO other JJ nations NNS about IN their PP$ policy NN preferences NNS and CC intentions NNS . SENT Economic JJ sanctions NNS are VBP used VVN by IN particular JJ groups NNS , , usually RB financiers NNS , , to TO reap VV desireable JJ effects NNS on IN sectors NNS of IN target NN countries NNS . SENT The DT economic JJ benefits NNS gleaned VVN by IN domestic JJ interest NN groups NNS imposing VVG particular JJ sanctions NNS can MD be VB significant JJ , , and CC worth IN the DT confrontation NN . SENT The DT United NP States NPS is VBZ unique JJ in IN its PP$ position NN to TO be VB able JJ to TO impose VV unilateral JJ sanctions NNS , , since IN it PP has VHZ monopoly NN power NN over IN several JJ sectors NNS of IN the DT economic JJ trade NN market NN . SENT Countries NNS imposing VVG sanctions NNS usually RB direct VV their PP$ restrictions NNS against IN one CD specific JJ country NN . SENT The DT decision NN to TO impose VV economic JJ sanctions NNS , , usually RB arises VVZ from IN one CD country NN posing VVG some DT kind NN of IN economic JJ threat NN to TO another DT country NN , , or CC group NN of IN countries NNS . SENT The DT threat NN could MD be VB as RB simple JJ as IN restrictive JJ trade NN policies NNS which WDT stifle VV the DT sanctioning VVG nation NN s PP global JJ investments NNS or CC movement NN . SENT The DT coercive JJ abilities NNS of IN the DT sanction NN sender NN depends VVZ on IN the DT resources NNS it PP can MD link VV to TO the DT sanction NN issue NN as IN well RB as RB on IN its PP$ credibility NN Martin NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Characteristically RB , , the DT economy NN of IN the DT sender NN country NN is VBZ usually RB much RB larger JJR than IN that DT of IN the DT country NN being VBG targeted VVN , , Hufbauer NP , , Schott NP Elliott NP , , 1990 CD . SENT Often RB , , the DT sender NN s PP Gross NP National NP Product NP GNP NP is VBZ over IN ten CD to TO one CD hundred CD times NNS greater JJR than IN the DT target NN GNP NN . SENT When WRB the DT sender NN country NN controls VVZ a DT strategic JJ commodity NN , , their PP$ sanction NN leverage NN is VBZ magnified VVN . SENT Success NN , , depends VVZ on IN whether IN the DT sanction NN hits VVZ a DT sensitive JJ sector NN in IN the DT target NN nation NN s PP economy NN . SENT Economic JJ sanctions NNS may MD take VV the DT form NN of IN export NN sanctions NNS , , import NN sanctions NNS , , or CC financial JJ sanctions NNS . SENT The DT dominant JJ position NN of IN the DT United NP States NPS as IN a DT manufacturer NN of IN military JJ hardware NN and CC high JJ technology NN equipment NN has VHZ a DT profound JJ influence NN on IN target NN nations NNS . SENT America NP has VHZ used VVN financial JJ sanctions NNS much RB more RBR than IN export NN or CC import NN sanctions NNS . SENT The DT most RBS common JJ type NN of IN financial JJ sanction NN is VBZ the DT interruption NN of IN official JJ development NN assistance NN . SENT The DT majority NN of IN cases NNS involve VVP the DT manipulation NN of IN bilateral JJ economic JJ and CC military JJ assistance NN to TO developing VVG countries NNS . SENT The DT ultimate JJ sanction NN is VBZ a DT freeze NN of IN financial JJ assets NNS held VVN by IN the DT target NN country NN . SENT Financial JJ sanctions NNS frequently RB involve VVP or CC affect VVP pet JJ projects NNS of IN government NN officials NNS who WP are VBP in IN a DT position NN to TO influence VV policy NN . SENT Sanctions NNS are VBP imposed VVN to TO coerce VV a DT target NN country NN to TO alter VV its PP$ policies NNS or CC financial JJ practices NNS . SENT Sanctions NNS that WDT are VBP least RBS costly JJ to TO the DT sender NN country NN , , i NP . SENT . SENT e SYM . SENT the DT United NP States NPS , , use VV financial JJ leverage NN manipulating VVG aid NN flows NNS , , denying VVG official JJ credits NNS , , or CC freezing NN assets NNS , , rather RB than IN using VVG trade NN control NN . SENT The DT developing VVG countries NNS are VBP uniquely RB important JJ to TO the DT new JJ world NN market NN . SENT Wealth NN and CC economic JJ growth NN in IN the DT world NN s VVZ poorest JJS countries NNS is VBZ theoretically RB included VVN in IN free JJ trade NN agreements NNS . SENT However RB , , most RBS central JJ development NN aid NN projects NNS are VBP only RB implemented VVN if IN these DT countries NNS agree VVP to TO follow VV certain JJ rules NNS . SENT Mander NN 1993 CD lists NNS these DT rules NNS as RB . SENT a DT Must MD open VV all DT markets NNS to TO outside JJ trade NN and CC investment NN without IN requiring VVG majority NN local JJ ownership NN b NN Must MD eliminate VV all DT tariff NN barriers NNS c NN Must MD reduce VV government NN services NNS , , especially RB services NNS to TO the DT poor JJ d NN Must MD convert VV small JJ scale NN , , self NN sufficient JJ farming NN to TO high JJ tech NN , , pesticide NN intensive JJ agribusinesses NNS and CC produce VV one CD crop NN export NN commodities NNS , , such JJ as IN coffee NN and CC cattle NNS e NN Allow VVP free JJ access NN to TO natural JJ resources NNS , , such JJ as IN lumber NN , , minerals NNS , , and CC so RB on IN . SENT In IN addition NN to TO the DT above JJ set NN of IN rules NNS , , a DT second JJ mandate NN of IN initiations NNS are VBP required VVN . SENT Developing VVG countries NNS must MD . SENT a DT Harmonize VV local JJ and CC national JJ economies NNS to TO standards NNS set VVN by IN trade NN bureaucracies NNS b SYM Change NP or CC overlook VV local JJ laws NNS that WDT restrict VVP access NN to TO nature NN and CC natural JJ resources NNS c SYM Eliminate VV all DT non JJ tariff NN barriers NNS to TO trade VV , , such JJ as IN health NN , , environmental JJ or CC consumer NN laws NNS d SYM Permit NN multinational JJ access NN to TO all DT genetic JJ resources NNS and CC their PP$ patenting VVG e NN Permit VV entry NN to TO service NN industries NNS such JJ as IN banks NNS and CC advertising VVG agencies NNS f SYM Submit VV to TO the DT discipline NN of IN the DT enforcement NN powers NNS of IN trade NN bureaucracies NNS If IN these DT rules NNS are VBP not RB followed VVN , , the DT power NN of IN the DT MTO NP can MD use VV extreme JJ economic JJ sanctions NNS , , including VVG economic JJ isolation NN or CC worse JJR , , against IN them PP . SENT Foreign JJ Aid NN Developing VVG countries NNS , , suffering VVG from IN a DT lack NN of IN capital NN funds NNS , , have VHP traditionally RB turned VVN to TO capital NN surplus NN countries NNS for IN private JJ funds NNS in IN the DT form NN of IN bank NN loans NNS and CC the DT purchase NN of IN bonds NNS to TO finance VV infrastructure NN and CC production NN facilities NNS . SENT The DT United NP States NPS has VHZ been VBN the DT chief JJ provider NN of IN foreign JJ aid NN since IN post NN war NN times NNS Spero NP , , 1990 CD . SENT Aid NN is VBZ frequently RB used VVN to TO influence VV economic JJ policies NNS in IN recipient JJ countries NNS . SENT For IN example NN , , the DT U NP . SENT S NP . SENT has VHZ placed VVN economic JJ conditions NNS on IN aid NN that WDT have VHP shaped VVN monetary JJ and CC fiscal JJ policy NN , , investment NN policy NN , , and CC international JJ economic JJ policy NN and CC nationalization NN policy NN . SENT Through IN the DT supervision NN of IN aid NN projects NNS , , the DT aid NN bureaucracies NNS in IN all DT countries NNS have VHP become VVN involved VVN in IN decision NN making VVG in IN recipient JJ countries NNS . SENT Even RB the DT World NP Bank NP , , has VHZ used VVN its PP$ aid NN to TO promote VV market NN oriented JJ reforms NNS in IN developing VVG countries NNS . SENT In IN the DT 1980 CD s PP , , recession NN conditions NNS in IN developed JJ countries NNS prompted VVD the DT directives NNS that IN developing VVG countries NNS had VHD to TO provide VV incentives NNS and CC commercial JJ opportunities NNS for IN private JJ enterprise NN , , both CC domestic JJ and CC foreign JJ . SENT Economic JJ aid NN would MD have VH as IN its PP$ main JJ purpose NN , , the DT support NN of IN private JJ enterprise NN and CC free JJ markets NNS . SENT The DT IMF NP has VHZ been VBN criticized VVN for IN imposing VVG conditions NNS that WDT restrict VVP economic JJ growth NN and CC lower JJR living NN standards NNS in IN developing VVG countries NNS Melvin NP , , 1992 CD . SENT The DT typical JJ conditionality NN involves VVZ reducing VVG government NN spending NN , , raising VVG taxes NNS , , and CC restricting VVG monetary JJ growth NN . SENT The DT IMF NP has VHZ defended VVN their PP$ methods NNS by IN pointing VVG out RP that IN adjustment NN programs NNS are VBP necessary JJ in IN debtor JJ countries NNS to TO promote VV long JJ run NN growth NN . SENT Inflow NN of IN Capital NP Jain NP and CC Puri NP 1987 CD listed VVN benefits NNS enjoyed VVN by IN developing VVG countries NNS who WP host VV American NP MNCs NP initiatives NNS . SENT MNC NP bring VVP in IN foreign JJ capital NN to TO the DT host NN nation NN , , role NN model NN efficient JJ use NN of IN capital NN for IN local JJ investors NNS , , create VV a DT favorable JJ climate NN for IN the DT inflow NN of IN other JJ foreign JJ capital NN and CC for IN the DT receipt NN of IN foreign JJ aid NN , , offer VVP modern JJ employee NN training NN and CC managerial JJ techniques NNS , , and CC increase NN labor NN productivity NN . SENT Bifurcation NN of IN the DT national JJ economy NN and CC the DT developing VVG society NN is VBZ one CD result NN of IN the DT ability NN of IN MNCs NP to TO attract VV scarce JJ factors NNS of IN production NN in IN the DT host NN nation NN Walters NP Blake NP , , 1992 CD . SENT A DT small JJ , , international JJ oriented JJ elite NN coexist VV with IN the DT masses NNS of IN impoverished JJ people NNS in IN the DT population NN . SENT A DT dichotomous JJ population NN of IN rich JJ and CC very RB poor JJ are VBP the DT result NN . SENT Technological JJ Developments NPS put VVP MNC NP Influence VV Everywhere RB The DT advent NN of IN the DT technology NN age NN was VBD a DT prime JJ factor NN in IN enabling VVG corporate JJ powers NNS to TO rapidly RB accelerate VV their PP$ expansion NN beyond IN national JJ boundaries NNS Mander NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Satellites NNS , , high JJ speed NN computation NN , , advanced VVD high JJ speed NN travel NN , , instantaneous JJ resource NN transfer NN , , and CC other JJ global JJ scale NN technologies NNS allowed VVD instantaneous JJ contact NN with IN and CC control NN of IN its PP$ hundreds NNS of IN distant JJ parts NNS all RB over IN the DT globe NN . SENT The DT globalization NN of IN television NN via IN satellite NN enabled VVD big JJ business NN to TO spread VV commodity NN culture NN and CC Western JJ material NN values NNS even RB to TO non JJ developed JJ countries NNS . SENT This DT has VHZ helped VVN create VV a DT rapid JJ global JJ homogenization NN of IN cultures NNS within IN a DT Western JJ economic JJ paradigm NN . SENT High JJ speed NN transportation NN facilitated VVD the DT rapid JJ movement NN of IN resources NNS and CC commodities NNS to TO the DT world NN market NN and CC unified VVN all PDT the DT world NN s PP individual JJ markets NNS . SENT The DT governments NNS of IN North NP America NP , , Western NP Europe NP , , Japan NP , , Russia NP and CC the DT Eastern NP Block NP countries NNS all RB agreed VVD that IN a DT global JJ economy NN run VVN by IN central JJ corporate JJ interests NNS , , with IN strong JJ support NN from IN banks NNS , , governments NNS , , and CC transnational JJ trade NN institutions NNS was VBD the DT means NN to TO greater JJR efficiency NN , , rapid JJ development NN , , and CC mutual JJ aid NN . SENT That IN the DT international JJ institutions NNS , , the DT banks NNS and CC bureaucracies NNS must MD be VB given VVN sufficient JJ power NN to TO suppress VV resistance NN from IN unions NNS , , environmentalists NNS , , and CC advocates NNS of IN democracy NN , , national JJ culture NN , , and CC sovereignty NN . SENT The DT fall NN of IN the DT Soviet JJ communist NN regime NN further RBR catalyzed VVD this DT economic JJ transition NN . SENT When WRB Soviet JJ communism NN fell VVD , , its PP$ demise NN was VBD heralded VVN as IN a DT victory NN for IN both DT market NN economics NNS and CC democracy NN . SENT The DT trilateral JJ model NN of IN a DT homogenous JJ world NN economy NN based VVN on IN unlimited JJ growth NN and CC commodity NN consumption NN , , removal NN of IN economic JJ development NN barriers NNS , , and CC management NN of IN resources NNS by IN corporations NNS in IN collaboration NN with IN like JJ minded VVD governments NNS was VBD achievable JJ . SENT Renewed JJ emphasis NN on IN free JJ trade NN agreements NNS with IN added JJ power NN to TO enforce VV conformity NN was VBD evident JJ as IN MNC NP executives NNS gained VVD economic JJ decision NN making VVG power NN on IN a DT global JJ scale NN . SENT The DT goal NN of IN a DT unified JJ world NN development NN plan NN under IN multinational JJ corporate JJ leadership NN could MD be VB realized VVN . SENT Mander NP 1993 CD interpreted VVD the DT term NN market NN economics NNS to TO now RB mean VV an DT aggressive JJ economic JJ arrangement NN that WDT is VBZ centrally RB structured JJ , , has VHZ fixed VVN rules NNS of IN procedure NN , , makes VVZ many JJ exceptions NNS in IN individual JJ cases NNS , , and CC is VBZ not RB free JJ . SENT He PP deduced VVD that IN the DT only JJ freedom NN provided VVN is VBZ the DT freedom NN of IN MNCs NP to TO circumvent VV national JJ laws NNS that WDT would MD otherwise RB impede VV their PP$ corporate JJ activities NNS and CC profits NNS . SENT A DT new JJ world NN order NN was VBD initiated VVN , , one NN that WDT allows VVZ bankers NNS and CC developers NNS to TO plan VV the DT flow NN of IN the DT world NN s PP resources NNS and CC homogenizes VVZ the DT diverse JJ lifestyles NNS , , cultures NNS , , values NNS , , and CC geography NN of IN the DT world NN s PP nations NNS . SENT One CD of IN the DT great JJ advantages NNS to TO nations NNS who WP host VV MNCs NP is VBZ that IN these DT corporations NNS can MD afford VV to TO invest VV in IN equipment NN and CC technology NN which WDT help VVP to TO build VV a DT strong JJ economy NN and CC a DT more JJR efficient JJ social JJ world NN . SENT Top JJ MNCs NNS spend VVP an DT impressive JJ amount NN of IN money NN in IN research NN and CC development NN , , important JJ in IN advancing VVG national JJ initiatives NNS and CC innovation NN . SENT MNCs NNS often RB use VVP acquisition NN to TO gain VV control NN of IN industries NNS important JJ to TO future JJ development NN industries NNS such JJ as IN biotechnology NN , , telecommunications NNS , , advanced VVD civil JJ aviation NN , , microelectronics NNS and CC robotics NNS Lowe NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Global JJ Initiatives NNS to TO Control NP MNCs NP The DT attempt NN to TO create VV universal JJ guidelines NNS for IN foreign JJ investment NN has VHZ been VBN made VVN by IN various JJ organizations NNS , , including VVG the DT United NP Nations NPS , , the DT Organization NP for IN Economic NP Cooperation NP and CC Development NP , , and CC the DT International NP Labor NP Organization NP . SENT Issues NNS such JJ as IN employment NN practices NNS , , consumer NN and CC environmental JJ protection NN , , political JJ activity NN , , and CC human JJ rights NNS have VHP been VBN addressed VVN and CC included VVN in IN this DT guidelines NNS . SENT In IN various JJ host NN states NNS , , both CC U NP . SENT S NP . SENT and CC non JJ American JJ MNCs NNS have VHP been VBN accused VVN of IN economic JJ imperialism NN , , the DT fostering VVG of IN inter VV country NN competition NN , , and CC the DT advancement NN of IN insensitive JJ business NN practices NNS Walters NP Blake NP , , 1992 CD . SENT MNCs NNS have VHP become VVN the DT most RBS visible JJ and CC most RBS attacked VVN entities NNS in IN the DT global JJ economic JJ system NN . SENT At IN the DT same JJ time NN , , nearly RB every DT country NN in IN the DT world NN actively RB pursues VVZ MNC NP investment NN in IN their PP$ nation NN . SENT Foreign JJ investment NN is VBZ seen VVN as IN a DT way NN to TO get VV capital NN funds NNS , , technology NN , , managerial JJ expertise NN , , and CC industrial JJ and CC consumer NN products NNS so RB desperately RB needed VVN for IN economic JJ development NN . SENT The DT MTO NP has VHZ been VBN strategically RB placed VVN outside JJ of IN the DT jurisdiction NN of IN the DT United NP Nations NPS UN NP system NN , , and CC has VHZ depleted VVN the DT UN NP influence NN over IN global JJ economic JJ affairs NNS . SENT A DT loss NN of IN international JJ level NN democracy NN is VBZ inherent JJ in IN this DT process NN , , and CC has VHZ rendered VVN global JJ economic JJ decision NN making VVG as IN not RB accountable JJ to TO the DT UN NP or CC national JJ mandates NNS . SENT Financial JJ Privileges NNS of IN American NP MNCs NP Credit NP Eligibility NN A DT shift NN in IN credit NN eligibility NN has VHZ occurred VVN in IN the DT 1990 CD s PP for IN American JJ multinational JJ corporations NNS of IN all DT sizes NNS . SENT Even RB mid JJ sized VVD multinationals NNS have VHP enjoyed VVN being VBG approached VVN by IN American JJ bankers NNS to TO finance VV their PP$ international JJ trade NN transactions NNS Czinkota NP Ronkainen NP , , 1996 CD . SENT Promises NNS of IN flexible JJ , , cut VV rate NN financing NN are VBP offered VVN , , spurred VVN by IN the DT movement NN of IN national JJ banks NNS to TO expand VV to TO include VV foreign JJ investments NNS as IN a DT survival NN technique NN . SENT Efforts NNS by IN the DT Export NP Import NN Bank NP of IN the DT United NP States NPS Eximbank NP , , the DT federal JJ credit NN agency NN that WDT guarantees VVZ and CC insures VVZ loans NNS made VVN by IN commercial JJ banks NNS , , has VHZ made VVN trade NN financing NN enticing VVG to TO bankers NNS . SENT Eximbank NP has VHZ expanded VVN its PP$ guarantee NN on IN export NN loans NNS to TO 100 CD percent NN and CC has VHZ developed VVN a DT program NN whereby WRB banks NNS can MD pool NN and CC scrutinize VV small JJ trade NN loans NNS and CC thus RB wipe VV the DT foreign JJ country NN risk NN off IN their PP$ books NNS , , Czinkota NP Ronkainen NP , , 1996 CD , , page NN 124 CD . SENT Other JJ public JJ sector NN financing NN sources NNS for IN American JJ conglomerates NNS include VVP the DT Overseas NP Private NP Investment NP Corporation NP OPIC NP , , a DT federal JJ agency NN that WDT offers VVZ investment NN guarantees NNS to TO U NP . SENT S NP . SENT manufacturers NNS who WP intend VVP to TO establish VV factories NNS in IN less JJR developed JJ countries NNS , , either CC on IN their PP$ own JJ or CC as IN a DT joint JJ venture NN with IN local JJ capital NN . SENT OPIC NP also RB offers VVZ political JJ risk NN insurance NN , , protecting VVG MNCs NP from IN currency NN inconvertibility NN , , expropriation NN , , takeover NN , , and CC physical JJ damage NN resulting VVG form NN political JJ discord VV . SENT The DT Agency NP for IN International NP Development NP AID NN manages VVZ the DT majority NN of IN the DT economic JJ assistance NN programs NNS for IN business NN offered VVN by IN the DT American JJ federal JJ government NN . SENT In IN 1988 CD , , an DT affiliate NN of IN the DT World NP Bank NP was VBD created VVN , , the DT Multilateral NP Investment NP Guaranty NP Agency NP MIGA NP . SENT MIGA NP is VBZ authorized VVN to TO issue VV guarantees NNS against IN noncommercial NN risks NNS in IN host NN countries NNS , , enabling VVG investors NNS to TO test VV the DT market NN on IN economic JJ and CC financial JJ grounds NNS rather RB than IN political JJ risk NN . SENT Tax NP Benefits NP Tax NP benefits NNS are VBP another DT way NN that IN MNCs NP are VBP supported VVN by IN the DT American JJ government NN . SENT A DT tax NN mechanism NN called VVD the DT Foreign NP Sales NP Corporation NP FSC NP assists VVZ exporters NNS . SENT Tax NN deferrals NNS and CC benefits NNS enable VVP the DT MNC NP to TO offer VV products NNS at IN a DT lower JJR cost NN in IN foreign JJ markets NNS or CC accumulate VVP a DT higher JJR profit NN . SENT The DT American NP Department NP of IN Commerce NP actively RB encourages VVZ US PP exports VVZ to TO foreign JJ countries NNS . SENT Its PP$ mission NN is VBZ to TO increase VV the DT international JJ marketing NN activities NNS of IN American JJ firms NNS . SENT Taxation NN policies NNS allow VVP source NN countries NNS to TO defer VV foreign JJ profits NNS taxes NNS for IN MNCs NP until IN they PP were VBD repatriated VVN Caves NP , , 1996 CD . SENT The DT USA NP government NN has VHZ made VVN changes NNS in IN policies NNS to TO facilitate VV MNCs NP in IN behaving VVG monopolistically RB in IN foreign JJ sales NNS and CC purchases NNS , , but CC competitively RB in IN domestic JJ transactions NNS . SENT As IN Caves NP 1996 CD . SENT 247 CD points NNS out RB , , a DT country NN gains NNS from IN any DT policy NN that WDT can MD aid VV its PP$ national JJ firm NN to TO shift VV to TO higher JJR profit NN equilibrium NN in IN competition NN with IN a DT foreign JJ rival NN . SENT Caves NNS proposed VVD a DT behavioral JJ approach NN to TO public JJ policy NN , , which WDT assumed VVD that IN government NN decisions NNS resulted VVD from IN self NN interested JJ parties NNS interacting VVG in IN a DT political JJ setting NN . SENT Export NP Legislation NP Export NP trading NN company NN ETC NN legislation NN designed VVN to TO improve VV the DT export NN performance NN of IN medium NN sized VVD corporations NNS has VHZ been VBN implemented VVN in IN the DT USA NP . SENT Bank NN participation NN in IN trading NN companies NNS is VBZ accepted VVN , , to TO allow VV ETCs NP better JJR access NN to TO capital NN . SENT A DT relaxation NN of IN anti JJ trust NN provisions NNS also RB facilitated VVD joint JJ foreign JJ ventures NNS . SENT Summary NN Multinational JJ corporations NNS have VHP become VVN the DT new JJ rulers NNS of IN the DT economic JJ world NN . SENT No DT country NN is VBZ immune JJ to TO foreign JJ investment NN and CC economic JJ management NN by IN MNC NP executives NNS . SENT The DT multinational JJ corporation NN , , foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN , , and CC the DT general JJ free JJ flow NN of IN capital NN , , supported VVN by IN trade NN liberalization NN measures NNS , , are VBP seen VVN as IN the DT joint JJ saviors NNS of IN Western JJ economy NN . SENT As IN MNCs NP prosper VV and CC profits NNS are VBP maximized VVN , , economic JJ efficiency NN is VBZ enhanced VVN , , product NN variety NN and CC quality NN is VBZ increased VVN , , consumer NN choice NN becomes VVZ diverse JJ , , and CC the DT general NN well RB being VBG of IN society NN is VBZ maximized VVN . SENT In IN this DT view NN , , the DT role NN of IN governments NNS is VBZ to TO remove VV hindrances NNS that WDT obstruct VV the DT workings NNS of IN the DT market NN so IN that WDT MNCs NP can MD go VV about IN their PP$ business NN , , unrestricted JJ . SENT MNCs NNS expect VVP the DT governments NNS to TO protect VV their PP$ international JJ interests NNS . SENT MNCs NNS tend VVP to TO gravitate VV towards IN developing VVG countries NNS to TO take VV advantage NN of IN extremely RB low JJ labor NN costs NNS , , rich JJ natural JJ resources NNS , , and CC lax JJ environmental JJ and CC social JJ policies NNS . SENT Third JJ World NP countries NNS are VBP easy JJ to TO influence VV , , since IN most JJS of IN them PP face VVP pressures NNS caused VVN by IN external JJ debt NN and CC dependence NN on IN World NP Bank NP loans NNS . SENT The DT liberalizing VVG of IN investment NN movements NNS opens VVZ up RP the DT Third JJ World NP countries NNS to TO predatory JJ exploitation NN of IN their PP$ natural JJ resources NNS , , and CC rapid JJ transfer NN of IN potentially RB detrimental JJ investments NNS , , projects NNS , , and CC products NNS . SENT Liberalization NN of IN services NNS puts VVZ pressure NN on IN developing VVG countries NNS to TO accept VV and CC receive VV the DT cultural JJ and CC professional JJ services NNS of IN foreign JJ MNCs NP and CC the DT executives NNS who WP run VVP them PP . SENT MNCs NNS have VHP become VVN the DT most RBS visible JJ and CC most RBS attacked VVN organizations NNS in IN the DT global JJ economic JJ system NN . SENT At IN the DT same JJ time NN , , nearly RB every DT country NN in IN the DT world NN actively RB pursues VVZ MNC NP investment NN in IN their PP$ nation NN . SENT It PP is VBZ strongly RB predicted VVN both CC by IN supporters NNS and CC critics NNS that IN MNCs NP will MD enjoy VV an DT economic JJ monopoly NN in IN the DT coming JJ millennium NN , , and CC have VH a DT strong JJ say VVP in IN how WRB trade NN is VBZ done VVN , , and CC life NN is VBZ lived VVN , , all RB over IN the DT world NN . SENT Bibliography NN Bergsten NP , , C NP . SENT Fred NP . SENT New NP Rules NPS for IN International NP Investment NP , , In IN Lorraine NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 391 CD 404 CD . SENT Bornschier NP , , Volker NP . SENT Multinational JJ Corporations NNS , , Economic NP Policy NP , , and CC National NP Development NP in IN the DT World NP System NP , , In IN Pradip NP Ghosh NP ed NP . SENT Multinational JJ Corporations NNS and CC Third NP World NP Development NP , , 1984 CD , , pages NNS 30 CD 46 CD . SENT Brander NP , , James NP A NP . SENT Government NP Policy NP toward IN Business NP . SENT Toronto NP , , Ontario NP . SENT Butterworths NP , , 1988 CD . SENT Brandt NP , , Willy NP . SENT North NP South NP . SENT A DT Program NN for IN Survival NN . SENT The DT Report NP of IN the DT Independent NP Commission NP on IN International NP Development NP Issues NPS . SENT Cavaye NP Place NP , , UK NP . SENT Pan NP Books NPS , , 1980 CD . SENT Brecher NP , , Jeremy NP . SENT Taking VVG on IN the DT Multinationals NNS , , The DT Nation NP , , 1994 CD volume NN 259 CD , , December NP , , pages NNS 757 CD 60 CD . SENT Buckley NP , , Peter NP J NP . SENT ed NP . SENT . SENT New JJ Directions NNS in IN International NP Business NP . SENT Research NN Priorities NNS for IN the DT 1990 CD s PP . SENT Brookfield NP , , VT NP . SENT Edward NP Elgar NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Casson NP , , Mark NP . SENT General JJ Theories NNS of IN the DT Multinational JJ Enterprise NN . SENT Their PP$ Relevance NN to TO Business NP History NN , , In IN Peter NP Hertner NP and CC Geoffrey NP Jones NP eds NPS . SENT Multinationals NNS . SENT Theories NNS and CC History NN . SENT Brookfield NP , , VT NP . SENT Gower NP , , 1983 CD , , pages NNS 42 CD 63 CD . SENT Cateora NP , , Philip NP R NP . SENT International NP Marketing NP . SENT 9 CD th NN ed NP . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Richard NP D NP . SENT Irwin NP , , 1996 CD . SENT Caves NP , , Richard NP E NP . SENT Multinational JJ Enterprise NPS and CC Economic NP Analysis NP . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Cambridge NP Press NP , , 1996 CD . SENT Choucri NP , , Nazli NP . SENT The DT Global NP Environment NP and CC Multinational JJ Corporations NNS , , Technology NP Review NP , , volume NN 94 CD , , April NP 1991 CD , , pages NNS 52 CD 9 CD . SENT Czinkota NP , , Micheal NP R NP . SENT and CC Ilkka NP A NP . SENT Ronkainen NP . SENT Global NP Marketing NP . SENT Philadelphia NP . SENT Dryden NP Press NP , , 1996 CD . SENT Doran NP , , Charles NP and CC Alvin NP P NN . SENT Drischler NP . SENT The DT United NP States NPS , , Canada NP , , and CC the DT World NP Economy NP , , Washington NP , , DC NP . SENT The DT John NP Hopkins NP Foreign NP Policy NP Institute NP , , 1991 CD . SENT Dunning NP , , John NP H NP . SENT ed NP . SENT Multinational JJ Enterprises NPS , , Economic NP Structure NN , , and CC International NP Competitiveness NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT John NP Wiley NP and CC Sons NP , , 1985 CD . SENT Dunning NP , , John NP H NP . SENT Multinational JJ Enterprises NPS and CC the DT Global NP Economy NP . SENT Suffolk NP , , UK NP . SENT Addison NP Wesley NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Dunning NP , , John NP H NP . SENT In IN Lorraine NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 59 CD 83 CD . SENT Eden NP , , Lorraine NP ed NP . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Eden NP , , Lorraine NP and CC Evan NP Potter NP . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN the DT Global NP Political NP Economy NP . SENT Houndsmill NP , , UK NP . SENT St NP . SENT Martin NP s PP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Hettne NP , , Bjorn NP , , Robert NP Cox NP , , Stephen NP Gill NP , , Kees NP Van NP der NP Piji NP , , James NP Rosenau NP and CC Yoshikazu NP Sakamoto NP . SENT International NP Political NP Economy NP . SENT Understanding VVG Global JJ Disorder NN . SENT Halifax NP , , Nova NP Scotia NP . SENT Fernwood NP Publishing NP , , 1995 CD . SENT Hufbauer NP , , Gary NP C NP . SENT , , Jeffrey NP J NP . SENT Schott NP and CC Kimberley NP A NP . SENT Elliott NP . SENT Economic JJ Sanctions NNS Reconsidered VVN . SENT History NN and CC Current JJ Policy NN , , 2 CD nd NN ed NP . SENT Washington NP , , D NP . SENT C SYM . SENT . SENT Institute NP for IN International NP Economics NP , , 1990 CD . SENT Globerman NP , , Steven NP . SENT ed NP . SENT Canadian JJ based VVN multinationals NNS . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD . SENT Graham NP , , Edward NP M NP . SENT and CC Mark NP A NP . SENT Warner NP Multinationals NNS and CC competition NN policy NN in IN North NP American NP , , In IN Lorriane NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 463 CD 501 CD . SENT Green NP , , Mark NP J NP . SENT Beverley NP C NP . SENT Moore NP Bruce NP Wasserstein NP . SENT The DT closed JJ enterprise NN system NN . SENT Ralph NP Nadar NP s PP study VVP group NN report NN on IN antitrust JJ enforcement NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Grossman NP Publishers NPS , , 1972 CD . SENT Greider NP , , William NP . SENT The DT global JJ marketplace NN . SENT A DT closet NN dictator NN , , In IN Ralph NP Nader NP , , ed NP . SENT The DT case NN against IN Free NP Trade NP . SENT GATT NP , , NAFTA NP , , and CC the DT globalization NN of IN corporate JJ power NN . SENT San NP Francisco NP , , CA MD . SENT Earth NP Island NP Press NP , , 1993 CD , , pages NNS 195 CD 218 CD . SENT Grinspun NP , , Ricardo NP Maxwell NP A NP . SENT Cameron NP . SENT The DT poltical JJ economy NN of IN North NP American NP free JJ trade NN . SENT Montreal NP , , Quebec NP and CC Kingston NP , , Ontario NP . SENT McGill NP Queens NP University NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Hirst NP , , Paul NP Grahame NP Thompson NP . SENT Globalization NN in IN question NN . SENT the DT international JJ economy NN and CC the DT possibilities NNS of IN governance NN , , 1996 CD . SENT Howells NP , , Jeremy NP Michelle NP Wood NP . SENT The DT globalisation NN of IN production NN and CC technology NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Belhaven NP Press NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Hufbauer NP , , Gary NP C NP . SENT , , Jeffrey NP J NP . SENT Schott NP Kimberley NP A NP . SENT Elliot NP . SENT Economic JJ sanctions NNS recondsidered JJ . SENT History NN and CC current JJ policy NN , , 2 CD nd NN edition NN . SENT Washington NP , , DC NP . SENT Institute NP for IN International NP Economics NP , , 1990 CD . SENT Jain NP , , S NP . SENT C SYM . SENT Y NP . SENT Puri NP . SENT Role NN of IN multinational JJ corporations NNS in IN developing VVG countries NNS . SENT Policy NN makers NNS views NNS , , In IN Pradip NP Ghosh NP ed NP . SENT Multinational JJ corporations NNS and CC Third JJ World NP development NN , , 1984 CD , , pages NNS 114 CD 130 CD . SENT Khor NP , , Martin NP . SENT Free NP Trade NP and CC the DT Third NP World NP , , In IN Ralph NP Nader NP , , ed NP . SENT The DT case NN against IN Free NP Trade NP . SENT GATT NP , , NAFTA NP , , and CC the DT globalization NN of IN corporate JJ power NN . SENT San NP Francisco NP , , CA MD . SENT Earth NP Island NP Press NP , , 1993 CD , , pages NNS 97 CD 107 CD . SENT Kogut NP , , Bruce NP . SENT An DT evolutionary JJ perspective NN on IN the DT NAFTA NP , , In IN Lorriane NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 117 CD 133 CD . SENT Kudrle NP , , Robert NP T NN . SENT No DT entry NN . SENT Sectoral JJ controls NNS on IN incoming JJ direct JJ investment NN in IN the DT developed VVN countries NNS , , In IN Lorraine NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 142 CD 167 CD . SENT Lipsey NP , , Richard NP G NP . SENT , , Daniel NP Schwanen NP Ronald NP J NP . SENT Wonnacott NP . SENT The DT NAFTA NP . SENT What WP s PP in RB , , what WP s PP out RB , , what WP s PP next JJ . SENT Policy NN Study NP 21 CD . SENT Ottawa NP , , Ontario NP . SENT C SYM . SENT D SYM . SENT Howe NP Institute NP 1994 CD . SENT Lowe NP , , Janet NP . SENT The DT secret JJ empire NN . SENT How WRB 25 CD multinationals NNS rule VVP the DT world NN . SENT Homewood NP , , IL NP . SENT Business NP One NP Irwin NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Mander NP , , Jerry NP . SENT Megatechnology NP , , trade NN , , and CC the DT New NP World NP Order NP , , In IN Ralph NP Nader NP , , ed NP . SENT The DT case NN against IN Free NP Trade NP . SENT GATT NP , , NAFTA NP , , and CC the DT globalization NN of IN corporate JJ power NN . SENT San NP Francisco NP , , CA MD . SENT Earth NP Island NP Press NP , , 1993 CD , , pages NNS 13 CD 22 CD . SENT Martin NP , , Lisa NP L NP . SENT Coercive JJ Cooperation NP . SENT Explaining VVG Multilateral NP Economic NP Sanctions NNS . SENT Princeton NP , , NJ NP . SENT Princeton NP University NP Press NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Mayer NP , , Frederick NP W NP . SENT The DT NAFTA NP , , multinationals NNS and CC social JJ policy NN , , In IN Lorriane NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1994 CD , , pages NNS 509 CD 521 CD . SENT Melvin NP , , Michael NP . SENT International JJ money NN and CC finance NN . SENT 3 CD rd NN edition NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT HarpersCollins NP Publisher NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Nader NP , , Ralph NP Mark NP J NP . SENT Green NP eds NPS . SENT . SENT Corporate JJ power NN in IN America NP . SENT New NP York NP . SENT Grossman NP Publishers NPS , , 1973 CD . SENT Nader NP , , Ralph NP ed NP . SENT The DT case NN against IN Free NP Trade NP . SENT GATT NP , , NAFTA NP , , and CC the DT globalization NN of IN corporate JJ power NN . SENT San NP Francisco NP , , CA MD . SENT Earth NP Island NP Press NP , , 1993 CD . SENT Pugel NP , , Thomas NP A NP . SENT The DT United NP States NPS , , In IN John NP H NP . SENT Dunning NP ed NP . SENT . SENT Multinational JJ enterprises NNS , , economic JJ structure NN , , and CC international JJ competitiveness NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT John NP Wiley NP Sons NP , , 1985 CD , , pages NNS 57 CD 90 CD . SENT Randall NP , , Stephen NP J NP . SENT Herman NP Konrad NP Sheldon NP Silverman NP eds NPS . SENT . SENT North NP American NP without IN borders NNS . SENT Integrating VVG Canada NP , , the DT United NP States NPS , , and CC Mexico NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Smith NP , , Roy NP C NP . SENT Ingo NP Walter NP . SENT Reconfiguration NN of IN global JJ financial JJ markets NNS in IN the DT 1990 CD s PP , , In IN Peter NP J NP . SENT Buckley NP ed NP . SENT . SENT New JJ directions NNS in IN international JJ business NN . SENT research NN priorities NNS for IN the DT 1990 CD s PP . SENT Brookfield NP , , VT NP . SENT Edward NP Elgar NP , , 1992 CD , , pages NNS 52 CD 71 CD . SENT Spero NP , , Joan NP E NP . SENT The DT politics NNS of IN international JJ economic JJ relations NNS , , 4 CD th NN edition NN . SENT New NP York NP . SENT St NP . SENT Martin NP s PP Press NP , , 1990 CD . SENT Taylor NP , , Michael NP Nigel NP Thrift NP . SENT Multinationals NNS and CC the DT restructuring NN of IN the DT world NN economy NN . SENT The DT geography NN of IN multinationals NNS , , Volume NN 2 CD . SENT Dover NP , , NH NP . SENT Croom NP Helm NP , , 1986 CD . SENT Transnational JJ Corporations NNS and CC Management NP Division NP , , Department NP of IN Economic NP and CC Social NP Development NP . SENT The DT Transnationalization NN of IN service NN industries NNS . SENT an DT empirical JJ analysis NN of IN the DT determinants NNS of IN foreign JJ direct JJ investment NN by IN transnational JJ service NN corporation NN , , 1993 CD . SENT United NP Nations NPS . SENT Environmental JJ awareness NN high NN among IN TNCs NP , , Benchmark JJ Survey NN finds VVZ . SENT UN NP Chronicle NP , , volume NN 28 CD , , Dec NP . SENT 1991 CD , , 66 CD 7 CD . SENT Vernon NP , , Raymond NP . SENT Multinationals NNS and CC governments NNS . SENT Key JJ actors NNS in IN the DT NAFTA NP , , In IN Lorriane NP Eden NP ed NP . SENT . SENT inationals NNS in IN North NP America NP . SENT Calgary NP , , Alberta NP . SENT University NP of IN Calgary NP Press NP , , pages NNS 25 CD 44 CD , , 1994 CD . SENT Walters NP , , Robert NP S NP . SENT David NP H NP . SENT Blake NP . SENT The DT politics NNS of IN global JJ economic JJ relations NNS . SENT Englewood NP Cliffs NPS , , NJ NP . SENT Prentice NP Hall NP , , 1992 CD . SENT Site NN is VBZ optimized VVN for IN all DT browsers NNS for IN screen NN resolution NN 800 CD x SYM 600 CD for IN 16 CD bit NN or CC better JJR color NN . SENT WWWriters NP 1998 CD , , 1999 CD , , 2000 CD , , 2001 CD All NP rights NNS reserved VVD . SENT