/Users/andrea/_magisterarbeit/korpus/clean/trainkorpus/28/file10.html NN ----------------------------------------- : subscribe VV back JJ issues NNS search NN maps NNS July NP 1998 CD Contents NNS Hope NP in IN Colombia NP NATO NP at IN a DT loss NN Albania NP exposed VVN When WRB East NP Asia NP falters VVZ Turkey NP s PP pivotal JJ role NN in IN the DT international JJ drug NN trade NN Ethiopia NP Eritrea NP , , an DT absurd JJ war NN Ethiopia NP Eritrea NP . SENT background NN to TO the DT conflict NN Congolese JJ flashpoint NN The DT spectre NN of IN bioterrorism NN Conventions NNS and CC Treaties NNS The DT great JJ powers NNS hang VVP back JJ Women NNS s PP rights NNS , , but CC only RB for IN some DT Sharing NN out IN the DT region NN s PP water NN Imprisoning VVG the DT American JJ poor JJ Europe NP lagging NN behind IN Justice NP by IN race NN A DT boom NN in IN private JJ penitentiaries NNS How WRB Europe NP could MD put VV pressure NN on IN Israel NP FROM IN WELFARE NN STATE NN TO TO PRISON NN STATE NN Imprisoning VVG the DT American JJ poor JJ Prisons NNS in IN the DT free JJ world NN are VBP full JJ to TO bursting VVG point NN , , and CC fullest JJS of IN all DT are VBP US NP jails NNS . SENT Over IN the DT past JJ twenty CD years NNS , , exacerbated VVN by IN ever RB increasing VVG inequalities NNS , , preoccupation NN with IN the DT virtues NNS of IN law NN and CC order NN has VHZ led VVN to TO a DT toughening VVG of IN penalties NNS . SENT Worst JJS hit VVP have VH been VBN those DT excluded VVN from IN the DT American JJ dream NN . SENT The DT US NP is VBZ constantly RB tightening VVG its PP$ social JJ welfare NN budget NN , , but CC its PP$ generosity NN knows VVZ no DT bounds NNS when WRB it PP comes VVZ to TO controlling VVG and CC incarcerating VVG those DT whom WP it PP has VHZ deigned VVN neither RB to TO educate VV and CC care VV for IN , , nor CC provide VV with IN housing NN and CC an DT adequate JJ diet NN . SENT Realism NN and CC combating VVG insecurity NN are VBP the DT reasons NNS cited VVD by IN those DT who WP now RB call VVP for IN an DT eye NN for IN an DT eye NN in IN an DT attempt NN to TO justify VV criminalising VVG the DT poor JJ . SENT This DT US NP model NN is VBZ now RB taking VVG hold NN internationally RB , , and CC in IN some DT countries NNS in IN Europe NP it PP even RB seems VVZ to TO be VB attracting VVG a DT number NN of IN leaders NNS on IN the DT left NN despite IN the DT fact NN that IN prison NN is VBZ not RB the DT only JJ method NN of IN punishment NN . SENT By IN Lo NP c SYM Wacquant NP Just RB as RB in IN those DT heady JJ post NN war NN days NNS , , Europe NP s PP political JJ elites NNS , , bosses NNS and CC opinion NN formers NNS are VBP looking VVG to TO the DT United NP States NPS with IN fascination NN and CC envy NN , , largely RB because IN of IN the DT performance NN of IN the DT US NP economy NN . SENT Allegedly RB , , the DT key NN to TO US NP prosperity NN and CC the DT supposed VVN solution NN to TO mass JJ unemployment NN is VBZ simple JJ . SENT less JJR intervention NN by IN the DT state NN . SENT It PP is VBZ true JJ that IN the DT United NP States NPS and CC in IN its PP$ wake NN , , the DT United NP Kingdom NP and CC New NP Zealand NP has VHZ slashed VVN social JJ welfare NN spending NN and CC pared VVD down RP the DT rules NNS on IN hiring VVG and CC above IN all DT firing NN so RB as RB to TO establish VV flexible JJ working NN as IN the DT norm NN in IN relation NN to TO employment NN and CC indeed RB citizenship NN . SENT It PP is VBZ easy JJ for IN advocates NNS of IN neoliberal JJ policies NNS that WDT involve VVP stifling VVG the DT welfare NN state NN to TO claim VV that IN introducing VVG flexibility NN has VHZ stimulated VVN an DT increase NN in IN wealth NN and CC job NN creation NN , , but CC they PP are VBP more RBR reticent JJ about IN discussing VVG the DT consequences NNS of IN wage NN dumping VVG . SENT in IN this DT instance NN widespread JJ social JJ and CC physical JJ insecurity NN and CC a DT spiralling VVG in IN inequality NN leading VVG to TO segregation NN , , crime NN and CC the DT decay NN of IN public JJ institutions NNS . SENT But CC it PP is VBZ not RB enough JJ to TO measure VV the DT direct JJ social JJ and CC human JJ costs NNS of IN the DT system NN of IN social JJ insecurity NN that IN the DT US NP is VBZ proffering VVG as IN a DT model NN to TO the DT rest NN of IN the DT world NN 1 CD . SENT There EX is VBZ also RB its PP$ sociological JJ counterpart NN . SENT a DT boom NN in IN the DT institutions NNS that WDT compensate VV for IN the DT failures NNS of IN social JJ protection NN the DT safety NN net NN by IN casting VVG over RP the DT lower JJR strata NNS of IN society NN a DT police NN and CC criminal JJ dragnet NN that WDT gets VVZ harder JJR and CC harder JJR to TO escape VV . SENT As IN the DT social JJ state NN is VBZ deliberately RB allowed VVN to TO wither VV , , the DT police NN state NN flourishes NNS . SENT the DT direct JJ and CC inevitable JJ effect NN of IN impoverishing VVG and CC weakening VVG social JJ protection NN . SENT The DT increase NN in IN the DT prison NN population NN , , control NN of IN increasing VVG numbers NNS of IN people NNS on IN the DT margins NNS of IN the DT prison NN system NN , , the DT spectacular JJ boom NN in IN the DT penal JJ sector NN at IN both DT federal JJ and CC state NN level NN and CC the DT continuing VVG rise NN in IN the DT number NN of IN black JJ prisoners NNS are VBP the DT four CD significant JJ factors NNS defining VVG penal JJ trends NNS in IN the DT United NP States NPS since IN the DT complete JJ change NN in IN social JJ and CC racial JJ attitudes NNS that WDT began VVD in IN the DT 1970 CD s PP . SENT That DT change NN was VBD triggered VVN by IN the DT democratic JJ progress NN secured VVN as IN a DT result NN of IN Black NP protest NN and CC the DT popular JJ protest NN movements NNS that WDT surged VVD in IN its PP$ wake NN students NNS , , women NNS , , opponents NNS of IN the DT Vietnam NP war NN and CC environmentalists NNS 2 CD . SENT Prisoner NN numbers NNS have VHP risen VVN dramatically RB at IN all DT three CD tiers NNS of IN the DT prison NN system NN . SENT in IN the DT town NN and CC county NN jails NNS , , in IN the DT central JJ penitentiaries NNS of IN the DT fifty CD states NNS and CC in IN the DT federal JJ penitentiaries NNS . SENT During IN the DT 1960 CD s PP the DT US NP prison NN population NN was VBD shrinking VVG , , so RB much RB so RB that IN by IN 1975 CD it PP had VHD fallen VVN to TO 380 CD , , 000 CD , , having VHG declined VVN slowly RB but CC consistently RB by IN about IN 1 CD a DT year NN over IN a DT ten CD year NN period NN . SENT The DT talk NN at IN the DT time NN was VBD of IN emptying VVG the DT prisons NNS , , of IN alternatives NNS to TO imprisonment NN and CC of IN reserving VVG jail NN sentences NNS for IN criminals NNS who WP posed VVD a DT serious JJ threat NN between IN 10 CD and CC 15 CD of IN the DT prison NN population NN . SENT there EX were VBD even RB those DT who WP ventured VVD to TO predict VV that IN there EX would MD soon RB be VB no DT prisons NNS at IN all DT 3 CD . SENT But CC that DT trend NN was VBD rapidly RB and CC dramatically RB to TO be VB reversed VVN . SENT ten CD years NNS later RBR the DT prison NN population NN had VHD soared VVN to TO 740 CD , , 000 CD and CC , , by IN 1995 CD , , it PP was VBD in IN excess NN of IN 1 CD . SENT 6 CD million CD . SENT During IN the DT 1990 CD s PP , , prisoner NN numbers NNS have VHP been VBN increasing VVG by IN 8 CD annually RB . SENT A DT tripling VVG of IN the DT prison NN population NN in IN fifteen CD years NNS is VBZ unprecedented JJ in IN a DT democratic JJ society NN . SENT It PP leaves VVZ the DT United NP States NPS far RB outstripping VVG the DT other JJ developed JJ countries NNS since IN its PP$ rate NN of IN imprisonment NN 645 CD detainees NNS per IN 100 CD , , 000 CD of IN the DT population NN in IN 1997 CD , , that WDT is VBZ five CD times NNS the DT 1973 CD level NN is VBZ between IN six CD to TO ten CD times NNS higher JJR than IN that DT of IN the DT countries NNS of IN the DT European NP Union NP see VVP table NN 1 CD 4 CD . SENT Not RB even RB South NP Africa NP in IN the DT days NNS of IN the DT apartheid NN regime NN was VBD throwing VVG as RB many JJ of IN its PP$ citizens NNS into IN jail NN as RB does VVZ the DT US NP currently RB . SENT Justice NP by IN race NN Number NP of IN prisoners NNS per IN 100 CD 000 CD adults NNS table NN 1 CD 1985 CD 1990 JJ 1995 CD Blacks NNS 3 CD 544 CD 5 CD 365 JJ 6 CD 926 CD Whites NP 528 CD 718 CD 919 CD Disparity NN 3 LS 016 CD 4 CD 647 JJ 6 CD 007 CD Ratio NN 6 CD . SENT 7 CD 7 CD . SENT 4 CD 7 CD . SENT 5 CD Source NN . SENT Bureau NP of IN Justice NP Statistics NP , , Correctional JJ Populations NNS in IN the DT United NP States NPS , , 1995 CD , , Government NP Printing NP Office NP , , Washington NP , , 1997 CD . SENT 5 CD . SENT 4 CD million CD US NP citizens NNS somewhere RB in IN the DT prison NN system NN In IN California NP , , not RB so RB long JJ ago IN the DT national JJ champion NN of IN education NN and CC public JJ health NN but CC now RB a DT believer NN in IN prison NN across IN the DT board NN , , the DT number NN of IN prisoners NNS held VVN in IN its PP$ state NN jails NNS alone RB rose VVD from IN 17 CD , , 300 CD in IN 1975 CD to TO 48 CD , , 300 CD in IN 1985 CD and CC , , by IN 1995 CD , , had VHD passed VVN the DT 130 CD , , 000 CD mark NN . SENT If IN we PP add VVP to TO that IN the DT number NN of IN prisoners NNS held VVN in IN the DT county NN jails NNS Los NP Angeles NP alone RB holds VVZ 20 CD , , 000 CD prisoners NNS , , the DT total NN is VBZ a DT staggering JJ 200 CD , , 000 CD , , equivalent JJ to TO the DT population NN of IN a DT large JJ French JJ provincial JJ town NN . SENT But CC the DT extraordinary JJ expansion NN of IN the DT US NP penal JJ empire NN extends VVZ beyond IN the DT great JJ lock NN up RB as IN the DT century NN draws VVZ to TO a DT close NN . SENT There EX are VBP also RB those DT individuals NNS placed VVN on IN probation NN or CC parole NN . SENT It PP has VHZ not RB been VBN possible JJ to TO expand VV prison NN capacity NN fast RB enough RB to TO absorb VV the DT growing VVG stream NN of IN convicts VVZ , , with IN the DT result NN that IN the DT numbers NNS kept VVN on IN the DT margins NNS of IN the DT prison NN system NN have VHP increased VVN even RB more RBR quickly RB than IN the DT number NN held VVD inside RB . SENT In IN 1995 CD , , 3 CD . SENT 1 CD million CD people NNS were VBD on IN parole NN and CC 700 CD , , 000 CD on IN probation NN , , a DT total NN of IN nearly RB 4 CD million CD , , representing VVG more JJR or CC less JJR a DT fourfold JJ increase NN over IN 16 CD years NNS . SENT Consequently RB , , in IN 1995 CD , , there EX were VBD 5 CD . SENT 4 CD million CD Americans NNS in IN prison NN or CC within IN the DT prison NN system NN , , accounting VVG for IN 5 CD of IN men NNS aged VVN 18 CD and CC over IN and CC one CD in IN five CD black JJ males NNS and CC the DT reason NN for IN that WDT will MD become VV clear JJ below RB . SENT What WP is VBZ more JJR , , in IN addition NN to TO intermediate JJ penalties NNS available JJ to TO it PP , , such JJ as IN house NN arrest NN or CC confinement NN in IN a DT boot NN camp NN disciplinary JJ detention NN centre NN , , intensive JJ probation NN and CC telephonic JJ or CC electronic JJ surveillance NN using VVG bracelets NNS or CC other JJ technical JJ gadgetry NN , , the DT penal JJ system NN has VHZ been VBN able JJ to TO spread VV its PP$ tentacles NNS considerably RB further RBR as IN a DT result NN of IN the DT increase NN in IN the DT number NN of IN data NN banks NNS that WDT have VHP provided VVN many JJ new JJ ways NNS and CC centres NNS of IN distance NN monitoring NN . SENT During IN the DT 1970 CD s PP and CC the DT 1980 CD s PP , , the DT Law NP Enforcement NP Administration NP Agency NP the DT federal JJ body NN responsible JJ for IN crime NN prevention NN encouraged VVD the DT police NN , , courts NNS and CC prison NN authorities NNS to TO set VV up RP centralised VVN and CC computerised VVN data NN banks NNS , , and CC they PP have VHP since RB proliferated VVN . SENT The DT new JJ synergy NN between IN the DT penal JJ system NN s PP capture VV and CC observation NN functions NNS 5 CD means NNS that IN there EX are VBP now RB more JJR than IN 250 CD million CD rap NN sheets NNS as IN against IN 35 CD million CD ten CD years NNS ago RB covering VVG some DT 30 CD million CD individuals NNS . SENT close JJ on IN one CD third NN of IN all DT adult NN males NNS . SENT The DT data NNS banks NNS can MD be VB accessed VVN not RB only RB by IN the DT FBI NP and CC the DT INS NP responsible JJ for IN policing VVG foreigners NNS and CC the DT social JJ services NNS , , but CC also RB by IN individuals NNS and CC private JJ bodies NNS . SENT Employers NNS commonly RB use VVP data NNS banks NNS to TO sift VV out RP ex JJ prisoners NNS trying VVG to TO find VV work NN . SENT And CC so IN what WP if IN the DT data NN is VBZ frequently RB incorrect JJ , , out RB of IN date NN , , trivial JJ or CC indeed RB illegal JJ . SENT The DT fact NN that IN it PP is VBZ available JJ leaves VVZ not RB only JJ criminals NNS and CC crime NN suspects NNS , , but CC also RB their PP$ families NNS , , friends NNS , , neighbours NNS and CC neighbourhoods NNS , , targets NNS of IN the DT police NN and CC prison NN system NN 6 CD . SENT The DT lust NN for IN prisons NNS is VBZ both DT dependent JJ on IN and CC triggers VVZ a DT spectacular JJ expansion NN in IN the DT penal JJ sector NN at IN federal JJ and CC local JJ level NN . SENT All PDT the DT more RBR remarkable JJ because IN it PP comes VVZ at IN a DT time NN when WRB the DT public JJ sector NN is VBZ having VHG to TO tighten VV its PP$ belt NN . SENT Between IN 1979 CD and CC 1990 CD , , the DT states NNS increased VVD their PP$ spending NN on IN prisons NNS by IN 325 CD on IN operational JJ costs NNS and CC 612 CD on IN buildings NNS that WDT is VBZ to TO say VV three CD times NNS more RBR rapidly RB than IN national JJ military JJ spending NN , , even RB though IN the DT latter NN enjoyed VVD a DT privileged JJ position NN under IN the DT Reagan NP and CC Bush NP administrations NNS . SENT Since IN 1992 CD , , four CD states NNS have VHP allocated VVN more JJR than IN a DT billion CD dollars NNS to TO prison NN spending NN . SENT California NP 3 CD . SENT 2 CD billion CD , , New NP York NP State NP 2 CD . SENT 1 CD billion CD , , Texas NP 1 CD . SENT 3 CD billion CD and CC Florida NP 1 CD . SENT 1 CD billion CD . SENT All DT in IN all DT , , in IN 1993 CD , , the DT United NP States NPS spent VVD 50 CD more JJR on IN its PP$ prisons NNS than IN on IN the DT judiciary NN 32 CD billion CD as IN compared VVN with IN 21 CD billion CD , , whereas IN ten CD years NNS earlier RBR , , budget NN levels NNS were VBD the DT same JJ for IN both DT in IN the DT region NN of IN 7 CD billion CD . SENT The DT policy NN of IN prison NN expansion NN is VBZ not RB , , however RB , , a DT Republican JJ prerogative NN . SENT Over IN the DT past JJ five CD years NNS , , President NP Bill NP Clinton NP has VHZ been VBN declaring VVG just RB how WRB proud JJ he PP is VBZ to TO have VH put VVN an DT end NN to TO big JJ government NN and CC the DT commission NN for IN reform NN of IN the DT federal JJ state NN , , chaired VVN by IN his PP$ would MD be VB successor NN , , Vice NP President NP Al NP Gore NP , , has VHZ been VBN busy JJ pruning VVG public JJ sector NN programmes NNS and CC jobs NNS . SENT Meanwhile RB , , 213 CD new JJ prisons NNS have VHP been VBN built VVN a DT figure NN that WDT does VVZ not RB include VV the DT private JJ institutions NNS that WDT have VHP proliferated VVN as IN a DT lucrative JJ market NN in IN the DT sector NN has VHZ been VBN opened VVN up RP see VVP A DT boom NN in IN private JJ penitentiaries NNS . SENT At IN the DT same JJ time NN , , the DT number NN of IN employees NNS in IN federal JJ and CC state NN penitentiaries NNS alone RB has VHZ risen VVN from IN 264 CD , , 000 CD to TO 347 CD , , 000 CD . SENT Consequently RB , , according VVG to TO the DT office NN of IN census NN , , the DT training NN and CC hiring VVG of IN prison NN officials NNS is VBZ the DT area NN of IN government NN activity NN that WDT has VHZ seen VVN the DT most RBS rapid JJ growth NN over IN the DT past JJ decade NN . SENT The DT money NN has VHZ to TO come VV from IN somewhere RB , , and CC when WRB there EX is VBZ a DT fiscal JJ squeeze NN , , the DT only JJ way NN of IN increasing VVG spending NN on IN prisons NNS and CC prison NN staff NN is VBZ to TO cut VV the DT resources NNS allocated VVN to TO social JJ welfare NN , , health NN and CC education NN . SENT De FW facto FW , , the DT United NP States NPS has VHZ opted VVN to TO construct VV detention NN centres NNS and CC prisons NNS for IN its PP$ poor JJ , , rather RB than IN clinics NNS , , day NN nurseries NNS and CC schools NNS 7 CD . SENT Since IN 1994 CD , , for IN instance NN , , the DT annual JJ budget NN of IN the DT California NP Department NP of IN Correction NN responsible JJ for IN state NN detention NN centres NNS in IN which WDT prisoners NNS serving VVG more JJR than IN a DT year NN are VBP held VVN has VHZ been VBN higher JJR than IN that DT allocated VVN to TO the DT University NP of IN California NP . SENT The DT budget NN that IN Governor NP Pete NP Wilson NP proposed VVD in IN 1995 CD was VBD actually RB designed VVN to TO get VV rid JJ of IN a DT thousand CD jobs NNS in IN higher JJR education NN in IN order NN to TO fund VV jobs NNS for IN 3 CD , , 000 CD prison NN warders NNS . SENT That DT is VBZ a DT decision NN that WDT weighs VVZ heavily RB on IN the DT public JJ purse NN because IN in IN California NP a DT screw NN earns VVZ 30 CD more JJR than IN a DT lecturer NN because IN of IN the DT political JJ influence NN wielded VVN by IN the DT prisoner NN officers NNS trade NN union NN . SENT Along RB with IN this DT boom NN in IN the DT prison NN sector NN has VHZ come VVN lateral JJ expansion NN of IN the DT penal JJ system NN and CC thus RB a DT huge JJ increase NN in IN its PP$ capacity NN to TO hold VV and CC neutralise VV . SENT But CC the DT main JJ beneficiaries NNS of IN this DT additional JJ capacity NN are VBP poor JJ families NNS and CC districts NNS , , and CC particularly RB black JJ enclaves NNS in IN the DT cities NNS . SENT That IN much RB is VBZ clear JJ from IN the DT fourth JJ major JJ trend NN in IN the DT US NP prison NN system NN . SENT a DT continuing VVG rise NN in IN the DT numbers NNS of IN Black NP prisoners NNS , , so RB much RB so RB that IN since IN 1989 CD and CC for IN the DT first JJ time NN in IN history NN , , Black NP Americans NPS make VVP up RP the DT bulk NN of IN prisoners NNS , , even RB though IN they PP account VVP for IN barely RB 12 CD of IN the DT total JJ US NP population NN . SENT Discriminatory JJ police NN practices NNS In IN 1995 CD , , of IN 22 CD million CD black JJ adults NNS , , 767 CD , , 000 CD were VBD held VVN in IN prison NN , , 990 CD , , 000 CD were VBD on IN probation NN and CC 325 CD , , 000 CD others NNS on IN parole NN a DT total NN of IN 9 CD . SENT 4 LS caught VVN somewhere RB in IN the DT grip NN of IN the DT prison NN system NN . SENT As IN far RB as RB Whites NPS are VBP concerned VVN , , an DT estimate NN that WDT is VBZ on IN the DT high JJ side NN puts VVZ the DT figure NN at IN 1 CD . SENT 9 CD for IN a DT population NN of IN 163 CD million CD adults NNS 8 CD . SENT In IN terms NNS of IN prisoner NN numbers NNS alone RB , , the DT disparity NN between IN the DT two CD population NN groups NNS is VBZ 1 CD . SENT 7 CD . SENT 5 CD , , and CC it PP has VHZ been VBN steadily RB worsening VVG over IN the DT past JJ ten CD years NNS . SENT 528 CD compared VVN with IN 3 CD , , 544 CD for IN every DT 100 CD , , 000 CD adults NNS in IN 1985 CD , , and CC 919 CD compared VVN with IN 6 CD , , 926 CD ten CD years NNS later RBR see VV table NN 2 CD . SENT Over IN a DT lifetime NN , , a DT Black NP male NN has VHZ a DT one NN in IN three CD chance NN of IN spending VVG at IN least JJS a DT year NN in IN prison NN and CC an DT Hispanic JJ a DT one NN in IN six CD chance NN , , whereas IN a DT White NP has VHZ just RB a DT one NN in IN twenty CD three CD chance NN . SENT This DT phenomenon NN that IN criminologists NNS tactfully RB refer VVP to TO as RB racial JJ disproportionality NN is VBZ even RB more RBR marked JJ among IN young JJ people NNS , , prime JJ targets NNS of IN the DT criminalisation NN of IN poverty NN . SENT More JJR than IN a DT third JJ of IN Blacks NNS aged VVN between IN 20 CD and CC 29 CD years NNS are VBP either RB in IN prison NN , , under IN the DT authority NN of IN a DT judge NN responsible JJ for IN the DT execution NN of IN sentences NNS , , or CC awaiting VVG trial NN . SENT In IN the DT big JJ cities NNS , , the DT figure NN is VBZ substantially RB higher JJR than IN 50 CD , , and CC in IN some DT places NNS , , in IN the DT heart NN of IN the DT ghetto NN , , in IN excess NN of IN 80 CD . SENT So RB much RB so RB that IN , , to TO take VV an DT expression NN borrowed VVN from IN the DT tragic JJ memory NN of IN the DT Vietnam NP War NP , , the DT operation NN of IN the DT US NP justice NN system NN could MD be VB described VVN as IN a DT search NN and CC destroy VV mission NN targeted VVN on IN young JJ Blacks NNS 9 CD . SENT Europe NP lagging NN behind IN Rates NNS of IN imprisonment NN in IN the DT United NP States NPS and CC Europe NP in IN 1993 CD table NN 2 CD number NN of IN prisoners NNS per IN 100 CD , , 000 CD of IN population NN United NP States NP 546 CD Georgia NP 730 CD Texas NP 700 CD California NP 607 CD Florida NP 636 CD Michigan NP 550 CD New NP York NP 519 CD Italy NP 89 CD United NP Kingdom NP 86 CD France NP 84 CD Germany NP 80 CD Holland NP 51 CD Source NN . SENT Bureau NP of IN Justice NP Statistics NP , , Correctional JJ Populations NNS in IN the DT United NP States NPS , , Washington NP 1996 CD , , and CC Council NP of IN Europe NP , , Penological JJ Information NP Bulletin NP No RB 19 CD 20 CD , , December NP 1995 CD . SENT A DT predisposition NN to TO crime NN only RB partly RB explains VVZ the DT huge JJ disparity NN between IN Whites NPS and CC Blacks NPS in IN the DT prison NN population NN . SENT Mainly RB , , it PP reflects VVZ the DT fundamentally RB discriminatory JJ nature NN of IN police NN , , court NN and CC prison NN practice NN . SENT The DT proof NN is VBZ that IN Blacks NNS account VVP for IN 13 CD of IN drug NN users NNS more RBR or CC less RBR equivalent JJ to TO the DT proportion NN of IN Blacks NNS in IN the DT population NN but CC a DT third JJ of IN those DT arrested VVN and CC three CD quarters NNS of IN those DT imprisoned VVN for IN drug NN offences NNS . SENT The DT policy NN of IN a DT war NN on IN drugs NNS , , along RB with IN abandonment NN of IN the DT goal NN of IN rehabilitation NN and CC an DT increase NN in IN ultra JJ repressive JJ penalties NNS the DT widespread JJ application NN of IN a DT system NN of IN irreducible JJ fixed JJ penalties NNS , , automatic JJ life NN imprisonment NN for IN a DT third JJ offence NN and CC more JJR severe JJ penalties NNS for IN public JJ order NN offences NNS , , is VBZ one CD of IN the DT main JJ causes NNS of IN the DT rise NN in IN the DT prison NN population NN 10 CD . SENT In IN 1995 CD six CD out IN of IN ten CD of IN those DT newly RB convicted VVN were VBD put VVN in IN jail NN for IN possessing VVG or CC dealing VVG in IN drugs NNS . SENT Imprisonment NN is VBZ one CD area NN in IN which WDT Blacks NNS benefit VVP from IN positive JJ discrimination NN , , in IN itself PP an DT irony NN at IN a DT time NN when WRB the DT United NP States NPS is VBZ turning VVG its PP$ back NN on IN the DT affirmative JJ action NN programmes NNS that WDT were VBD designed VVN to TO reduce VV the DT most RBS glaring JJ racial JJ inequalities NNS in IN access NN to TO education NN and CC jobs NNS . SENT But CC what WP matters VVZ more JJR than IN all PDT the DT statistics NNS is VBZ the DT rationale NN underlying VVG the DT shift NN from IN social JJ welfare NN to TO a DT toughening VVG in IN penal JJ policy NN . SENT Far RB from IN being VBG inconsistent JJ with IN the DT neoliberal JJ programme NN of IN deregulation NN and CC decline NN of IN the DT public JJ sector NN , , the DT rise NN in IN prominence NN of IN the DT US NP penal JJ system NN reveals VVZ the DT true JJ picture NN , , reflecting VVG a DT policy NN of IN criminalising VVG poverty NN which WDT inevitably RB goes VVZ hand NN in IN hand NN with IN the DT imposition NN of IN insecure JJ and CC underpaid JJ jobs NNS , , as RB well RB as IN the DT restructuring NN of IN social JJ welfare NN programmes VVZ to TO make VV them PP more RBR restrictive JJ and CC punitive JJ . SENT When WRB imprisonment NN was VBD institutionalised VVN in IN America NP in IN the DT mid JJ 19 CD th NN century NN , , it PP was VBD primarily RB conceived VVN as IN a DT method NN of IN controlling VVG deviant JJ and CC dependent JJ population NN groups NNS , , and CC the DT majority NN of IN those DT imprisoned VVN were VBD the DT poor JJ and CC immigrant NN workers NNS newly RB arrived VVD in IN the DT New NP World NP 11 CD . SENT Nowadays RB , , the DT US NP prison NN system NN performs VVZ a DT similar JJ role NN in IN regard NN to TO those DT groups NNS who WP have VHP been VBN rendered VVN superfluous JJ or CC who WP no DT longer JJR fit NN in IN as IN a DT result NN of IN the DT restructuring NN of IN both DT employment NN relations NNS and CC public JJ welfare NN . SENT the DT shrinking VVG working NN class NN and CC the DT Blacks NPS . SENT As IN a DT result NN , , it PP has VHZ become VVN a DT vital JJ instrument NN of IN government NN by IN poverty NN , , used VVN to TO underpin VV the DT principle NN of IN flexible JJ working NN at IN the DT point NN where WRB the DT market NN in IN unskilled JJ labour NN , , the DT urban JJ ghetto NN and CC the DT reformed VVN social JJ services NNS meet VVP . SENT Unemployment NN under IN wraps VVZ To TO begin VV with IN , , the DT prison NN system NN makes VVZ a DT direct JJ contribution NN to TO regulating VVG the DT lower JJR segments NNS of IN the DT labour NN market NN and CC does VVZ so RB in IN infinitely RB more JJR coercive JJ fashion NN than IN any DT social JJ charge NN or CC administrative JJ rule NN . SENT Its PP$ effect NN here RB is VBZ artificially RB to TO compress VV unemployment NN levels NNS both CC by IN forcibly RB abstracting VVG millions NNS of IN males NNS from IN the DT job NN seeking VVG population NN , , and CC also RB by IN boosting VVG employment NN in IN the DT prison NN goods NNS and CC service NN sector NN . SENT It PP is VBZ , , for IN example NN , , estimated VVN that IN during IN the DT 1990 CD s PP US NP prisons NNS brought VVD down RP US NP unemployment NN figures NNS by IN two CD percentage NN points NNS . SENT According VVG to TO Bruce NP Western NP and CC Katherine NP Beckett NP , , taking VVG into IN account NN the DT differences NNS in IN levels NNS of IN imprisonment NN in IN the DT two CD continents NNS , , and CC contrary JJ to TO the DT idea NN commonly RB accepted VVN and CC actively RB disseminated VVN by IN the DT advocates NNS of IN neoliberalism NN , , for IN 18 CD of IN the DT past JJ 20 CD years NNS US NP unemployment NN rates NNS have VHP been VBN higher JJR than IN those DT of IN the DT European JJ Union NP 12 CD . SENT However RB , , Western NP and CC Beckett NP show VVP that IN the DT jump NN in IN the DT prison NN population NN is VBZ a DT two CD edged VVD weapon NN . SENT while IN in IN the DT short JJ term NN it PP makes VVZ the DT employment NN picture NN look VVP rosier RBR by IN cutting VVG labour NN supply NN , , in IN the DT longer JJR term NN it PP will MD inevitably RB worsen VV the DT employment NN situation NN by IN making VVG millions NNS of IN people NNS more JJR or CC less RBR unemployable JJ . SENT Although IN imprisonment NN has VHZ cut VVN US PP unemployment NN levels NNS , , the DT prison NN system NN will MD have VH constantly RB to TO be VB abandoned VVN to TO keep VV those DT levels NNS down RB . SENT The DT fact NN that IN Blacks NNS are VBP massively RB and CC increasingly RB over RB represented VVN at IN all DT levels NNS of IN the DT prison NN system NN highlights VVZ its PP$ second JJ function NN in IN this DT new JJ form NN of IN government NN by IN poverty NN . SENT it PP is VBZ to TO replace VV the DT ghetto NN as IN a DT means NN of IN containing VVG population NN groups NNS considered VVN deviant JJ and CC dangerous JJ , , not RB to TO mention VV superfluous JJ from IN both CC an DT economic JJ and CC a DT political JJ point NN of IN view NN Mexican JJ and CC Asian JJ immigrants NNS are VBP far RB more RBR docile JJ . SENT Poor NP Blacks NPS hardly RB ever RB bother VV to TO vote VV and CC the DT country NN s PP electoral JJ centre NN of IN gravity NN has VHZ in IN any DT event NN shifted VVN towards IN the DT White NP suburbs NNS . SENT To TO that DT extent NN , , prison NN is VBZ merely RB the DT ultimate JJ manifestation NN of IN a DT policy NN of IN exclusion NN of IN which WDT the DT ghetto NN has VHZ been VBN a DT means NNS and CC an DT end NN since IN it PP first RB appeared VVD in IN history NN . SENT The DT penal JJ institutions NNS are VBP now RB directly RB tuned VVN into IN the DT bodies NNS and CC programmes NNS responsible JJ for IN assisting VVG marginal JJ groups NNS . SENT While IN the DT ethos NN of IN punishment NN inherent JJ in IN the DT penal JJ system NN tends VVZ to TO contaminate VV and CC then RB redefine VV the DT aims NNS and CC machinery NN of IN social JJ welfare NN , , prisons NNS have VHP , , like IN it PP or CC not RB , , to TO deal VV urgently RB and CC with IN the DT resources NNS available JJ to TO them PP with IN the DT social JJ and CC medical JJ ills NNS that IN their PP$ clientele NN has VHZ been VBN unable JJ to TO remedy VV elsewhere RB . SENT Finally RB , , the DT effect NN of IN budgetary JJ constraints NNS and CC the DT political JJ philosophy NN of IN decreasing VVG state NN intervention NN has VHZ been VBN to TO open VV up RP both DT social JJ assistance NN and CC prisons NNS to TO the DT market NN . SENT Many JJ states NNS , , like IN Texas NP and CC Tennessee NP , , are VBP already RB keeping VVG substantial JJ numbers NNS of IN prisoners NNS in IN private JJ jails NNS and CC subcontracting VVG to TO specialist NN companies NNS responsibility NN for IN administrative JJ follow VVP up RP of IN recipients NNS of IN welfare NN benefits NNS . SENT One CD way NN of IN earning VVG a DT buck NN from IN the DT poor JJ and CC criminals NNS , , both CC ideologically RB and CC economically RB . SENT What WP then RB we PP are VBP witnessing VVG is VBZ the DT establishment NN of IN a DT commercial JJ socio NN penal JJ complex NN designed VVN to TO monitor VV and CC penalise VV those DT population NN groups NNS that WDT refuse VVP to TO submit VV to TO the DT new JJ economic JJ order NN 13 CD with IN a DT gender NN based VVN division NN of IN labour NN . SENT the DT penal JJ element NN covers VVZ males NNS in IN the DT main JJ , , while IN the DT welfare NN component NN supervises VVZ the DT women NNS and CC children NNS . SENT And CC the DT same JJ people NNS shuffle NN around RP within IN this DT more JJR or CC less RBR closed JJ circle NN . SENT The DT American JJ experience NN shows NNS that IN today NN , , just RB as RB at IN the DT end NN of IN the DT last JJ century NN , , rigidly RB separating VVG social JJ policy NN and CC penal JJ policy NN or CC , , to TO take VV it PP one CD further JJR , , the DT labour NN market NN , , social JJ welfare NN if IN you PP can MD still RB call VV it PP that IN and CC prison NN means VVZ that IN we PP are VBP left VVN understanding NN neither CC 14 CD . SENT Wherever WRB it PP becomes VVZ a DT reality NN , , the DT neoliberal JJ utopia NN brings VVZ with IN it PP , , for IN the DT poorest JJS in IN society NN and CC also RB for IN all DT who WP find VVP themselves PP excluded VVN from IN what WP remains VVZ of IN protected JJ employment NN , , not RB more JJR , , but CC less JJR freedom NN , , or CC indeed RB no DT freedom NN at IN all DT . SENT It PP does VVZ this DT by IN taking VVG us PP back RB to TO the DT repressive JJ paternalism NN of IN another DT age NN when WRB capitalism NN was VBD rampant JJ , , now RB bolstered VVN by IN an DT omniscient JJ and CC omnipotent JJ punitive JJ state NN . SENT More JJR about IN Lo NP c SYM Wacquant NP . SENT Translated VVN by IN Julie NP Stoker NP Lecturer NN at IN the DT University NP of IN California NP , , Berkeley NP . SENT 1 CD See NP articles NNS on IN Eternel NP retour NP du NP miracle NN am VBP ricain NN , , Le NP Monde NP Diplomatique NP , , January NP 1997 CD , , and NP Lo NP c SYM Wacquant NP , , La NP g NN n NN ralisation NN de NP l NN ins NNS curit NP sociale NP en IN Am NP rique NP , , Actes NP de FW la FW recherche NN en IN sciences NNS sociales NNS , , December NP 1996 CD . SENT 2 CD David NP Chalmers NP , , And CC the DT Crooked NP Places VVZ Made NP Straight NP . SENT The DT Struggle NN for IN Social NP Change NP in IN the DT 1960 CD s PP , , Temple NP University NP Press NP , , Philadephia NP , , 1991 CD , , and CC James NP T NN . SENT Patterson NP , , Grand NP Expectations NNS . SENT The DT United NP States NPS 1945 CD 1974 CD , , Oxford NP University NP Press NP , , 1996 CD . SENT 3 CD On IN those DT debates NNS , , see VVP Norval NP Morris NP , , The DT Future NP of IN Imprisonment NN , , The DT University NP of IN Chicago NP Press NP , , Chicago NP , , 1974 CD . SENT 4 CD Unless IN stated VVN otherwise RB , , all DT of IN these DT statistics NNS are VBP drawn VVN from IN various JJ publications NNS of IN the DT Bureau NP of IN Justice NP Statistics NPS of IN the DT Federal NP Department NP of IN Justice NP in IN particular JJ its PP$ periodic JJ reports NNS on IN Correctional JJ Populations NNS in IN the DT United NP States NPS , , Washington NP , , Government NP Printing NP Office NP . SENT 5 CD Diana NP Gordon NP gives VVZ an DT excellent JJ description NN of IN that DT synergy NN in IN The DT Justice NP Juggernaut NN . SENT Fighting VVG Street NP Crime NP , , Rutgers NP University NP Press NP , , New NP Brunswick NP , , 1991 CD . SENT 6 CD The NP State NP of IN Illinois NP has VHZ put VVN on IN the DT Internet NN the DT description NN and CC a DT summary NN of IN the DT criminal JJ record NN of IN all DT of IN its PP$ prisoners NNS , , so RB that DT anyone NN can MD find VV out RP about IN a DT prisoner NN s PP previous JJ offences NNS just RB by IN clicking VVG the DT mouse NN . SENT 7 CD See NP the DT data NNS compiled VVN by IN Steve NP Gold NP , , Trends NNS in IN State NP Spending NN , , Center NP for IN the DT Study NN of IN the DT States NPS , , Rockefeller NP Institute NP of IN Government NP , , Albany NP New NP York NP , , 1991 CD . SENT 8 CD That IN estimate NN actually RB makes VVZ no DT distinction NN between IN Whites NPS of IN Anglosaxon NN origin NN and CC people NNS of IN Hispanic JJ origin NN , , thereby RB automatically RB pushing VVG up RP the DT level NN of IN Whites NPS of IN European JJ origin NN . SENT The DT effect NN is VBZ being VBG compounded VVN as IN time NN goes VVZ by IN with IN rates NNS of IN imprisonment NN rising NN most RBS rapidly RB among IN Hispanics NNS in IN recent JJ times NNS . SENT 9 CD Title NN of IN Jerome NP Miller NP s PP authoritative JJ work NN , , Search NP and CC Destroy VV . SENT African NP American NP Males NPS in IN the DT Criminal NP Justice NP System NP , , Cambridge NP University NP Press NP , , Cambridge NP , , 1997 CD . SENT 10 CD For IN a DT discussion NN of IN these DT various JJ points NNS , , see VVP Lo NP c NN Wacquant NP , , Crime NN et CC ch NN timent NN en IN Am NP rique NP de NP Nixon NP Clinton NP , , Archives NPS de NP politique NN criminelle NN , , Paris NP , , No NP 20 CD , , Spring NP 1998 CD . SENT 11 CD David NP Rothman NP , , The DT Discovery NP of IN the DT Asylum NN . SENT Social JJ Order NN and CC Disorder NN in IN the DT New NP Republic NP , , Little NP , , Brown NP , , Boston NP , , 1971 CD , , pp RB 239 CD 240 CD . SENT 12 CD Bruce NP Western NP and CC Katherine NP Beckett NP , , How WRB Unregulated JJ is VBZ the DT US NP Labor NP Market NP . SENT The DT Penal JJ System NN as IN a DT Labor NP Market NP Institution NP , , presentation NN to TO the DT annual JJ congress NN of IN the DT American JJ Sociological JJ Association NP , , 39 CD pages NNS , , 1997 CD , , p NN . SENT 31 CD . SENT 13 NP Lo NP c SYM Wacquant NP , , Les NP pauvres NNS en IN p NN ture NP . SENT la NP nouvelle NN politique NP de FW la FW mis NNS re IN en IN Am NP rique NP , , H NP rodote NP , , Paris NP , , No NP 85 CD , , Spring NP 1997 CD . SENT 14 CD As RB shown VVN by IN David NP Garland NP in IN Punishment NN and CC Welfare NP . SENT A DT History NN of IN Penal JJ Strategies NNS , , Gower NP , , Aldershot NP , , 1985 CD , , in IN regard NN to TO the DT paradigm NN case NN of IN Victorian JJ England NP . SENT English JJ language NN editorial NN director NN . SENT Wendy NP Kristianasen NP all DT rights NNS reserved VVD 1997 CD 2005 CD Le NP Monde NP diplomatique NN . SENT